Deep Earth DIALOG
| Number 8 | Fall, 1994 |
This is the eighth annual issue of the newsletter of SEDI, an IUGG Union
Committee to Study the Earth's Deep Interior. Requests for additional copies
of this issue, or for copies of the earlier issues, should be addressed
to David Loper, Geophysical Flu id Dynamics Institute, Florida State University,
Tallahassee, Florida 32306-3017, U.S.A, faxed to (904) 644-8972 or emailed
to loper@gfdi.fsu.edu. Items for the next issue or notifications of change
of address should be sent to the same address.
- Summary of SEDI 94 symposium
- Introduction
- Modern geodetic constraints on Earth structure: VLBI, SLR, GPS and superconducting gravimetry
- Core dynamics and thermodynamics
- The geodynamo: theory and observational constraints
- Mantle mixing and the cooling Earth: a symposium in memory of J. Tuzo Wilson
- Core mantle interactions and Earth rotation
- Physical and chemical properties of the deep Earth
- Global seismology and large scale dynamics
- Summaries of other meetings
- IASPEI symposium on deep Earth discontinuities: configuration and dynamics
- IASPEI symposium on structure and composition of the Earth's interior and their relation to planetary interiors
- IASPEI symposium on seismic tomography and mantle dynamics
- AGU session on high performance computing in the geosciences
- Projects and National Activities
- German SEDI activities
- Japanese SEDI activities
- Canadian SEDI activities
- US SEDI activities
- Workshop on Geomagnetism in Studies of the Earth's interior
- AGU SEI Committee activities
- Business activities
- SEDI 94 business meeting
- European secretary
- Nominating committee
- Doornbos Memorial Fund
- Email network
- Confirmation of status
- Future meetings of interest
Contents
Summary of SEDI 94 Symposium
Introduction
The Fourth International SEDI symposium (referred to familiarly as SEDI 94) took place at Whistler Mountain, British Columbia, Canada from 7-12 August 1994. Like previous SEDI symposia (Mizusawa 92; Santa Fe 90; Blanes 88) the event brought together more than 120 specialists on the interior structure and dynamics of the Earth. The symposium was dedicated to the memory of Durk Doornbos, former SEDI Chairman, which many of us sorely missed at Whistler. The symposium was organized through the small but devoted band of Canadian SEDI members, headed by David Crossley (McGill Univ.) and hosted by the Canadian Geophysical Union, which provided the seed money for the conference organization. The organizers are to be congratulated for running a successful and stimulating symposium.The symposium consisted of eight half-day sessions, each consisting of a mix of invited review talks, brief oral presentations of posters, protracted coffee breaks allowing viewing of posters and finally a group discussion of the talks and posters. The c ontent of the sessions are summarized in the following seven reports (two closely related sessions being summarized in one report). The invited review talks are to be compiled into a volume, edited by David Crossley and Andrew Soward (Univ. Newcastle upon Tyne) and published as part of the Gordon and Breach Series on "The Fluid Mechanics of Astrophysics and Geophysics". Many of the contributed presentations are to be published as a special issue of Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors, edited by H enri-Claude Nataf (École Normale Supérieure) and David Loper (Florida State Univ.).
Not least among the attractions of the conference was the location of Whistler itself, which is a ski/summer resort some 80 miles north of Vancouver. Delegates were kept suitably conference bound for the first few days due to inclement mountain weather, but after that the sun came out for the hikes and Barbecue on Wednesday.
One of the highlights of the week was the SEDI Banquet featuring after-dinner
reminiscences by SEDI gurus. Jack Jacobs (Univ. Aberystwyth) focused on
the early days of SEDI (Trieste 1986 seems such a long time in the past)
and Jean-Louis Le Mouël (Instit ut de Physique du Globe, Paris) gave
a state-of-SEDI address that gently chided us for not being imaginative
enough when it comes to selling and exploiting our science. In fact he
held up as an example a recent science-fiction paperback and shared with
us this most quotable quote: "What is clear is that nobody has the slightest
idea what's going on in the core... Lack of knowledge won't stop the flood,
of course... Flood ?... Of theoretical papers" (Paul Preuss, Core, Avon
Books, 1993). Finally, and perha ps most significantly, Kurt Lambeck (Australian
National Univ.), as potential incoming SEDI Chairman, highlighted some
of the important science waiting to be done in the area of global geophysics
that will no doubt form the essence of future SEDI symposia .
In the second invited talk, C. Yoder (Jet Propulsion Lab.) described
a set of applications of modern space-geodetic techniques to problems in
Earth dynamics. Yoder emphasized a number of outstanding issues, and also
described attempts to use space-geodet ic data in global-change applications.
In the discussion period following the talk the issue of the utility of
measurements of secular variations in the long wavelength geoid in constraining
deep-mantle viscosity was raised. J. Mitrovica (Univ. Toronto) s uggested
that recent work (by Trupin, Mitrovica, etc.) indicated that ongoing ice/ocean
mass variations could excite secular variations in the geoid which are
comparable to those associated with glacial isostatic adjustment, and thus
the inference of mant le viscosity based on the Jl-dot harmonics was problematic.
The discussion session touched on a number of other issues raised by Yoder's
talk. In particular, the connection between decadal scale length-of-day
changes and core flow was addressed. J. Bloxha m (Harvard Univ.) argued
that calculating torques at the CMB due to outer core flows, under the
assumption of geostrophic flow, was not appropriate: indeed, theoretical
considerations indicate that the geostrophic assumption leads to zero torque.
The poster presentations associated with Session 1 had a number
of contributions from the SG community. These commonly considered error
budgets at the growing network of stations and a variety of geophysical
applications. Two posters associated with geop hysical applications of
VLBI data were included. J. B. Merriam (Univ. Saskatchewan) presented work
(with colleagues B. Chao and Y. Tamura) which considered estimates of mantle
anelasticity in the zonal tidal band obtained from VLBI UT time series.
J. Mitr ovica (Univ. Toronto) presented work (with colleagues J. Davis,
P. M. Mathews, and I. I. Shapiro) dealing with their determination of the
tidal h Love number parameters in the diurnal band using over a decade
of VLBI group delay data.
Contributed by J. Mitrovica, Univ. Toronto.
Aldridge summarized the history of laboratory investigations on
rotating fluids, in particular those related to core dynamics, beginning
with Taylor's 1921 experiments showing the pervasive two dimensionality
that rotation imposes on a fluid. More recent experimental work on the
instability generated by an elliptic boundary, and attempts to include
compositional convection and the Lorentz force were also described. Posters
by J. Vanyo et al. and P. Wilde and J. Vanyo (Univ. California, Santa Barbara)
des cribed recent experimental work on core motions induced by spin-up
and precession.
Whaler described the recent evolution of ideas about the degree
of layering in the core, and the degree of magnetic flux diffusion that
is possible. Some of the problems associated with investigations of compositional
convection were discussed, notably t he uncertainty as to what the lighter
component in the core is, and what its miscibility with iron at core conditions
might be. Poster papers W. Kuang, J. Bloxham (Harvard Univ.) and D. Fearn
(Univ. Glasgow) and by J. Lister (Univ. Cambridge) and B. Buffe tt (Univ.
British Columbia) (see below) also addressed this problem. Recent work
on the influence of lateral variations in the mantle on core dynamics and
thermodynamics suggests that core and mantle may be linked in more subtle
ways than simply mechanica l coupling at the CMB.
Of the papers on core oscillations, two dealt with the translational
oscillations of the inner core. D. Crossley, O. Jensen (McGill Univ.),
M. G. Rochester and W.-J. Wu (Memorial Univ.) discussed the likelihood
of this motion being observed at all and co ncluded that the largest of
earthquakes might produce a nanogal signal in gravity, which would be observable
by superconducting gravimetry, if the motion was not quickly damped. Most
estimates of the damping (magnetic, viscous) favor high Q's, but are unc
ertain. In a related paper, B. Buffett and D. Goertz (Univ. British Columbia)
argue that magnetic damping would produce a Q ~ 2000. A new mechanism,
in which a small part of inner-core boundary is subject to phase changes
during the motion, may dissipate enough heat thermodynamically to damp
the motion very quickly.
M. I. Bergman (Harvard Univ.) D. Fearn, P. Shannon (Harvard Univ.)
and J. Bloxham explained how magnetic drag could limit the generation of
convective chimneys near the inner-core boundary, and described an experimental
set-up to test this idea. D. Brito , P. Cardin and H.-C. Nataf (École
Normale Supérieure) described another experimental apparatus to
measure the effects of magnetic fields on flow in a rotating conducting
liquid. P. Cardin and P. Olson (Johns Hopkins Univ.) , and P. Olson and
G. Glatzmaie r (Los Alamos National Lab.) numerically modeled the influence
of the magnetic field on styles of convection in the outer core and concluded
that convection patterns were sensitive to the relative orientation of
buoyancy, rotation, and magnetic field. S. Ewen and A. Soward (Univ. Newcastle
upon Tyne) showed that simple wave trains consisting of magneto-convective
pulses are generally unstable, and conclude that other geostrophic nonlinearities
not considered may also be important. M. St. Pierre (Harvard U niv.) showed
numerical results that suggested that buoyant parcels rising through the
core would be quickly broken up, bringing into question the notion of plumes
and parcels as convection styles. Since the length scales resulting from
this instability ma y be too small to handle in a global simulation of
convection, St. Pierre and P. Roberts (Univ. California, Los Angeles) proposed
a parametric scheme in which the magnetic field is represented as a mean
and fluctuating part.
U. Hansen (Utrecht Univ.) and D. Yuen (Univ. Minnesota) showed
that thermal dissipation in compositional convection can be large, and
W. Kuang et al. in a study of thermal and compositional convection, found
that when thermal and compositional buoyancy f luxes are comparable, the
convection pattern is similar to purely thermal convection. They also showed
that a stably stratified layer could form at the CMB if the convection
was largely compositional, but that the presence of a thermal mode could
prevent such a layer. J. Lister and B. Buffett also tackled the question
of how much of the core might be stably stratified, and the consequences
for core evolution if stability were achieved at various times, relative
to inner core nucleation and the onset of co mpositional convection.
Contributed by J. Merriam, Univ. Saskatchewan.
The situation facing the development of MHD geodynamo theory, including
the aspects described above, was reviewed by D. Fearn (Univ. Glasgow).
He emphasized the importance of the small parameters, e.g. the Ekman number
(~ 10-15), and the Roberts number ( q = k/h ~10-6), which can nevertheless
not be neglected in the numerical integration of the dynamo problem. His
talk also brought out the very considerable commitment being currently
made in Britain to the solution of the geodynamo problem.
It is usually believed that, in the case of the Earth at least,
the a-effect is created by asymmetric waves of planetary scale. The study
of these slow "MAC-waves" is an ongoing preoccupation of a number of theoreticians,
one of whom, S. London (Univ. Ho uston-Downtown), made a presentation at
the present meeting. London used multiple-scale analysis and concentrated
on a spherical thin-shell model of the fluid core. Slow, finite amplitude,
planetary waves were the subject of an investigation by K. Hutches on (Univ.
Glasgow) and D. Fearn. Their weapon was the computer and their model of
the core was a cylindrical annulus. One of the first effects of nonlinearity
is the creation by the waves of an axisymmetric part to the Lorentz force.
Since geostrophic flo w is so easily excited in a rotating system, this
component of the Lorentz force produces a disproportionately large geostrophic
response in the flow. In a related but linear computational study, C. Jones,
A. Longbottom (Univ. Exeter) and R. Hollerbach (L os Alamos National Lab.)
included buoyancy forces and determined the 'preferred mode' of convection,
i.e. the mode that is excited at the smallest value of the Rayleigh number
(a non-dimensional parameter measuring the buoyancy force). They found
that the azimuthal wave number of the preferred mode is of order 2 when
the Elsasser number (the non-dimensional parameter measuring the Lorentz
force in terms of the Coriolis force) is about 2. The results of their
model in fact suggested that the Elsasser numbe r based on the toroidal
field strength in the core lies between 5 and 10. They found, in this parameter
range, encouraging general agreement between the field and flow produced
by their model and the field and flow inferred by extrapolating the observed
g eomagnetic field downwards to the CMB. They concluded that the nonaxisymmetric
part of the geomagnetic field and the velocities on the core surface inferred
from studies of the geomagnetic secular variation strongly support the
hypothesis that large scale convection, of much the same type as theory
is currently predicting, is occurring in the core.
One of the interesting aspects of the meeting was the revival
in interest in precession as a source of core motion. The creation of an
a-effect by precessionally driven flows was the subject of a paper by C
Barenghi (Univ. Newcastle upon Tyne), R. Holler bach and R. Kerswell (Univ.
Newcastle upon Tyne). They found that the intense shear layers created
by a slight 'tilt over' of the Earth's rotation axis can, on average, produce
a steady a-effect within the tangent cylinder, i.e. the cylinder circumscribin
g the inner core and parallel to the rotation axis.
The existence of an a-effect allows the axisymmetric (zonal and
meridional) components of field and motion to be studied in isolation from
their asymmetric parts. In the case of kinematic theory, there are two
extreme models, the a2 and aw models which differ only in the way that
they create zonal field; both rely on the a-effect to produce the meridional
field from the zonal field. Between these two extremes lie a range of a2w
models, which create zonal from meridional field by both the a- and w-effect
s. Characteristically, a2 dynamos are steady and aw models reverse polarity
on the time scale, of free decay, say 103 to 104 yr. in the case of the
core. Thus, even though many estimates suggest that the w-effect is much
morepotent than the a-effect in cr eating zonal field, the simple aw model
is unacceptable as a model of the geodynamo. There are however two main
ways in which a more sophisticated aw geodynamo might be plausible. First,
the oscillation is quenched by quite modest meridional flow of a typ e
that might well be expected to arise in the core; second, it is also removed
if the creation of zonal field by the alpha-effect supplements significantly
its creation by the w-effect, which C. Barenghi argued might be the case
during the long periods in which the geomagnetic field maintained one polarity.
He also pointed out that the added alpha2-effect need not eliminate the
oscillation; it might merely lengthen its period so much that it becomes
comparable with the time scale of geomagnetic field reve rsals.
K. Hinata and Y. Hamano (Univ. Tokyo) studied an alpha2omega model
with the aim of understanding how the geodynamo mechanism changes over
geological time through the thinning of the fluid outer core, brought about
by the growth of the solid inner core by freezing during the general cooling
of the Earth. They found, in agreement with Barenghi, that, for fixed geometry,
the dynamo changes from steady to oscillatory mode as the ratio of the
omega-effect to the alpha-effect is increased. More interestingly, if that
ratio is fixed and the depth of the fluid core is changed, the dynamo becomes
increasingly of oscillatory type. In addition to the geophysical implication
of that finding, they conjectured that it may explain why the dynamo in
the Sun's thin conve ctive shell is oscillatory while that in Earth's thicker
shell is nearly steady.
Mean field kinematic geodynamos are of course much easier subjects for
study than either fully 3D kinematic models or fully MHD dynamos. They
are nevertheless not trivial to solve, and the possibility of a technique
that would simplify the task is of con siderable interest. Such a technique,
known as the Maximally Efficient Generation Approximation (or MEGA), has
been proposed. M. Kono and S. Starchenko (Univ. Tokyo) reported studies
aimed at assessing the accuracy of the approximation by computing alpha-
omega models using MEGA and comparing the results with those obtained from
the full, unapproximated equations. The agreement between the two was,
in all cases, reasonably good. For models in which the alpha- and omega-effects
are concentrated in a region of the core, MEGA produces very good estimates
of the critical magnetic Reynolds numbers as well as the general shapes
of the poloidal and toroidal magnetic fields.
A new technique of a different type is the so-called "mapping
method" of T. Nakajima (Univ. Sydney) and P. Roberts. In this approach
the computational grid is chosen to simplify the integration of dynamical
equations dominated by the Coriolis force, with out sacrificing the simplicity
of spherical coordinates when satisfying the electrodynamic conditions
at the CMB. At the present meeting they confined themselves to the asymmetric
induction equation, and recovered results obtained earlier by Dudley and
Ja mes for the G. O. Roberts and Gubbins dynamos as well as for three simple
models proposed by themselves.
The full MHD dynamo is so forbidding that a simpler two-dimensional
problem has often been studied instead. In such "intermediate models" (IMs),
so-called because they are intermediate in difficulty between the kinematic
models and the fully 3D MHD model s, an a-effect is invoked to prevent
field collapse, but otherwise the models are fully nonlinear. They provide
a suitable test bed for the elucidation of the axisymmetric force balance,
which has given rise to some controversy. Because the inertial and v iscous
forces are so small compared with the Coriolis and magnetic forces, it
is tempting to omit them. This is the so-called "magnetostrophic approximation".
The resulting equations either have no solution or an infinite number,
differing only by the geo strophic flow. (This is a zonal motion independent
of the coordinate parallel to the angular velocity of the Earth.) The condition
for the existence of a solution is known as "Taylor's constraint", after
an influential paper by J. B. Taylor in 1963, and t he resulting solutions
are called "Taylor states". An alternative way of satisfying the axisymmetric
dynamical balance is by including the coupling of core to mantle, the simplest
way being through a weak viscous coupling. This gives rise to a different
t ype of IM that was christened "model-Z" by its creator, S. I. Braginsky.
Studies of models-Z of aw type were the subject of papers by A. Anufriev
(Bulgarian Acad. Sci.), I. Cupal and P. Hejda (Czech Acad. Sci.), by S.
Braginsky (Univ. California, Los Ange les) and P. Roberts and by D. Jault
(Institut de Physique du Globe, Paris). Braginsky and Roberts aimed at
a fairly complete survey of the particular model-Z investigated in 1978
by Braginsky and later by Braginsky and Roberts. They also considered its
fi eld structure for large dynamo numbers. (The dynamo number is the product
of the Reynolds numbers for the a- and w- effects individually.) The numerical
method of Anufriev et al. allowed them to study similar models at larger
dynamo numbers. They reported the existence of an unexpected bifurcation
at which a new 'weak Taylor state' appeared. The integration of models
such as these has in the past proved to be surprisingly difficult. In something
of a breakthrough, Jault exhibited both the cause and the cu re. He found
that by restoring the inertial forces to the geostrophic flow, i.e. by
allowing torsional oscillations, the integrations are numerically much
more stable, and can be followed to parameter ranges hitherto found to
be impossible to reach. In pa rticular, he exhibited convincing IM solutions
of Taylor type. This has done much to restore faith in the Taylor state
as a model of the geodynamo, but strictly speaking the question of which
balance (if either) obtains in the core remains open. Jault's d iscovery
appears to be related to the study by D. Ivers (Univ. Sydney), which indicated
that torsional oscillations should be retained even when the magnetostrophic
approximation is applied to the ageostrophic part of the motion.
A model that is less challenging than fully 3D MHD models but
is more difficult than the IM is the "advanced intermediate model" (AIM),
in which just one Fourier mode (in longitude) of the field and motion are
added to their axisymmetric components. It is unnecessary in AIM to invoke
an a-effect; an axisymmetric emf arises naturally from the intera ction
of those Fourier modes. Taking one particular AIM, driven by thermal convection,
C. Jones, A. Longbottom (Univ. Exeter) and R. Hollerbach (Los Alamos National
Lab.) succeeded in demonstrating dynamo action that in some parameter ranges
produced unst eady magnetic fields exhibiting intriguing similarities with
the geomagnetic field. For example, the poloidal field produced by their
model is of the right order of magnitude and it undergoes periodic reversals,
on a time scale long compared with a typica l fluctuation time of the field.
From such 2 1/2 D models, it is in principle a short step to fully 3D-models
of the geodynamo, but that step requires gigantic computer resources, in
order to resolve properly fields and flows that contain many Fourier mod
es in longitude.
Despite heavy use of such resources, G. Glatzmaier and P. Roberts
had, at the time of the meeting, integrated their 3D convective model for
only the order of 2/3 the free decay time, but their field showed every
indication of permanence, and displayed fe atures that suggested that some
of the preconceptions that have developed in the subject over the past
4 decades will need re-evaluation. For example, in their strong field geodynamo,
the magnetic energy is nevertheless on average much the same as the kin
etic energy (relative to the rotating frame); the strength of the axisymmetric
parts of the toroidal and poloidal fields are comparable; fluid velocities
as large as a few cm/sec and fields as large as 80 G arise within the core;
it is not the region near the outer core equator but the interior of the
tangent cylinder, North and South of the inner core, that is most significant
for the regeneration process, etc. The finite electrical conductivity of
the mantle and inner core were included in their model, both of which were
free to rotate under the electromagnetic and viscous couples to which they
are subjected by the fluid core, the net angular momentum of the whole
system being conserved. The resulting variations in the length of day were
an order of mag nitude too large but varied on roughly the right time scale.
The pattern and amplitude of the radial magnetic field at the CMB resembles
that of the Earth, but its secular variation is somewhat greater. The solution
shows considerable variability in time but, in agreement with R. Hollerbach
and C. Jones, they found that, because the inner core has a small electrical
time constant (~ 0.01 free decay time), it tends to remove short time scale
phenomena that would otherwise be created in the fluid core. Holl erbach
and Jones argued that this influences the reversal characteristics of the
geomagnetic field. Glatzmaier and Roberts showed a movie of their solution
which auto-reversed occasionally when field generation North and South
of the inner core happened t o become sufficiently disparate.
There can be little doubt that the fluid core is in a turbulent
state and that magnetic fields and fluid motions are present that cover
a wide spectrum of different length and time scales. These will not be
properly numerically resolved in the foreseeabl e future. S Braginsky and
P. Roberts have developed a set of equations that they argue govern the
turbulently averaged fields and which model the fluid and solid core as
a binary alloy of iron and some light constituent, such as S, Si, or O.
(They present ed arguments that tended to favor S or Si.) They succeeded
in finding a new and powerful simplification of the anelastic equations
governing the fluid motion. In contrast to other recent work, they inferred
that thermal convection is probably more potent as a source of convection
than is compositional buoyancy created by the release of light component
of core alloy at the ICB during the growth of the inner core during the
general cooling of the Earth. Regarding the geodynamo as a machine doing
useful work , they developed new expressions for its efficiency that incorporated
the secular effects of cooling. A cognate investigation was reported by
B. Buffett (Univ. British Columbia) and J. Lister (Cambridge Univ.), who
presented a model for thermal evolution of the core and estimated the relative
importance of the two driving mechanisms. They found that thermally driven
dynamos are viable, even in the absence of compositional convection. When
both mechanisms operate, the energy supply to the dynamo can increa se
significantly. They argued that thermal convection must have been the primary
source in the early Earth when the inner core was small or absent, but
that compositional convection is the primary source of energy for the geodynamo
today. Like Braginsky a nd Roberts, they inferred that the Nusselt number
of core convection is probably small even though core convection is strongly
supercritical.
The whole basis of the mental pictures which many scientists conjure
up in their brains when attempting to visualize the MHD of the core was
questioned by P. Lorrain and D. Crossley (McGill Univ.), who argued that
the frozen-flux picture of MHD is fatall y flawed. Their argument is based
on the premise that, when the conductivity s becomes large, the current
density J = sigma(E + V x B) becomes large, and the state E-> -V x B is
not realized.
Ultimately, the theory of the Earth's magnetism will have to withstand
the test of comparison with observations. The data can be roughly be divided
into two parts: the ancient and modern. By 'ancient' we mean that obtained
from paleomagnetic studies; by 'modern' we mean that derived from satellites,
land-based observatories, and archeomagnetism. The ancient data was reviewed
by K. Hoffman (California Poly. State Univ.), who also gave interpretations
in the light of modern geodynamo theory. Although recen t paleomagnetic
data favor a preferred orientation of the geomagnetic axis during polarity
reversals, Hoffman argued that this might be an artifact partly caused
by the time-averaging intrinsic to sedimentary data. He showed, using information
extracted f rom volcanic rocks only, that the virtual geomagnetic poles
show a tendency to remain during reversals in some areas for long periods
(e.g. NW Australia) and do not show any preferred longitude band. Hoffman
concluded that some agency must exist that cont rols CMB boundary conductivity.
He also emphasized that the existence of a slower evolution of the magnetic
field in the form of the change in average reversal rate is well confirmed.
This rate is currently about 5/million years, but was essentially zero
in the Cretaceous (about 100 Myr ago) and in the Permian (about 250 Myr
ago). This also suggests that slowly changing conditions in the lower mantle
are exerting significant effects on the geodynamo mechanism.
C. Johnson and C. Constable (Univ. California, San Diego) addressed
the question of the character of the long-term field as observed in the
paleomagnetic record: does it have any long-term biases not obvious in
the governing equations? Although the data are not sufficient to make definitive
statements, they find the evidence is strongest for the "far-sided" effect,
in which the virtual geomagnetic pole occurs opposite to the geographic
pole. Turning now to the modern data, V. Golovkov (Izmiran, Troitsk) presented
the results of recent study that utilized four centuries of data from Veinberg's
catalog. The perplexing stability of the geomagnetic field in North America
was confirmed, e.g. the zero declination isoline did not move during this
time, to the a ccuracy of the data and analysis. He contrasted this large
but unchanging anomaly with that under Siberia.
To make reliable contact between the surface and near-surface
observations of the field and the geodynamo, it is necessary to extrapolate
those observations down to the core surface. A. Goodacre (Ottawa) showed,
with some simplifying assumptions, that th e core fluid motion can be shown
to resemble the present-day plate motions on the surface of the Earth.
He thus concluded that the secondary motions in the core reflect or is
influenced by the convection in the lower mantle. The general philosophy
of extr apolating the surface field to the CMB was analyzed by W. Webers
(GeoForschungCentrum, Potsdam), who paid particular attention to the regularization
of the extrapolated field.
A. Jackson (Oxford Univ.) used such extrapolations, and an assumed tangentially
geostrophic force balance, to infer core surface motions. He found evidence
for East-West oscillations below the western Pacific and large changes
in zonal flow energy at the end of the last century, which he suggested
were associated with the large change in the length of the day at that
time. Most encouraging was the degree to which his model fitted the observatory
data. The entire field of extrapolation and core surface mo tion was reviewed
by C. Voorhies (NASA Goddard), who paid particular attention to the successes
and shortcomings of the steady-flow approximation and the steady-acceleration
approximation, in which it is supposed that, superimposed on a steady surface
flo w, there is also a constantly accelerating part. He described results
obtained by using the Definitive Geomagnetic Reference Field. He reported
that steadily accelerating flows gave a good account of the field, and
provided estimates of the rms flow speed (7.50 km/yr.) and of the rms acceleration
(0.183 km/y2). He described what has been done to include both mantle conductivity
and an assumed steady diffusion of magnetic flux in the core fluid at the
CMB.
These studies rest largely on the properties of the electromagnetic
equations, i.e. the kinematic approach to geomagnetic data analysis; except
for the tangentially geostrophic approximation, dynamic aspects are ignored.
A more ambitious attack was made by M. Matsushima (Tokyo Inst. Tech.) who,
like the above authors, tried to determine the core surface motions, but
who used the full MHD equations to obtain a model consistent with the present
geomagnetic field and its secular variation. Only the shape of the poloidal
velocity field was assumed in this work. By this approach, he could obtain
core surface motions that resemble those described by Jackson and Voorhies.
He could also estimate the rms field strength in the core. That of the
toroidal field was about 20 Gauss, so that his model is of alpha2omega-type.
J. Love and D. Gubbins (Univ. Leeds) argued that the geodynamo would minimize
the ohmic dissipation implied by the induction equation. They fitted such
a model to the observations in order to learn something about both the
motions in the core and the geodynamo.
An attempt to bridge the gap between the ancient and the modern
was made by G. Hulot, et al (Institut de Physique du Globe, Paris) who
proposed a stochastic model of the geomagnetic field. This model assumes
an axial dipole that changes only slowly with time, superimposed on which
is a field varying rapidly, i.e. the secular-variation time scale. They
used recent and archeomagnetic data to define the statistics of their model
and then used those statistics to produce numerical simulations of the
field ov er a period of 105 yr., which they found were not unlike the temporal
behavior of sedimentary data. The numerical simulations also showed occasional
"excursions" reminiscent of the excursions seen in sedimentary data. This
suggests that, though infrequent , excursions are a pervasive characteristic
of the geomagnetic field.
Contributed by Masaru Kono (Univ. Tokyo) and Paul Roberts (Univ.
California, Los Angeles)
The poster session covered many related topics: Earth evolution,
MORB-source depletion in the upper mantle; pooling of subducted crustal
material at the CMB; layering in the mantle and the source of hotspots;
plume interactions and spatial variations in convection experiments; laboratory
and numerical models of subducted slabs and subduction zones; tilting of
continental cratons due to subduction; chemically distinct regions in the
mantle; effects of cooling at the CMB; effects of curvature on three-dime
nsional convection models; and the effect of continents in controlling
Wilson cycle flow reversals in the mantle convective circulation.
Contributed by Gary Jarvis, York Univ.
A follow-up presentation by J. Bloxham and W. Kuang (Harvard Univ.)
emphasized the practical difficulties that arise in the direct calculation
of topographic coupling using estimates of the fluid flow at the core surface.
It was noted that the topographi c torque vanishes for a core in geostrophic
balance and thus the ageostrophic part of the flow is responsible for topographic
coupling. Based on the time scale of angular momentum transfer, it was
argued that the magnetic field is essential to this transf er of angular
momentum. Using a numerical model they found that the topographic couple
is very sensitive to the magnetic field within the core. Optimism was expressed
for the prospect of placing constraints on the magnetic field using observations
of the decadal variations in the length of day.
A somewhat different point of view was expressed by S. Yoshida
and Y. Hamano (Univ. Tokyo) who calculated the geomagnetic field variations
that might arise from changes in the length of day. They assumed that the
effects of core-mantle boundary undulatio ns allow length-of-day variations
to cause geomagnetic variations and attempted to explain the decadal variation
of the sectoral component of the magnetic field. They inferred both the
boundary topography and toroidal magnetic field required to reproduce the
observed variations in the sectoral components. The estimated boundary
topography was well correlated with the pattern of seismic heterogeneity
in the lower mantle and the toroidal field strength was approximately 150
G. The length-of-day variations w ere attributed to climate change, although
questions were raised about whether the atmosphere possessed sufficient
angular momentum to cause the decadal variations.
Possible connections between climate, length of day and the magnetic
field were revisited in a poster presentation by H. Greiner-Mai and H.
Jochmann (GeoForschungZentrum, Potsdam). Similarities in the spectra of
global temperature and magnetic field sugg ested a possible influence of
the magnetic field on long-term climate changes. Changes in the length
of day at periods of roughly 70 years and longer were attributed to core-mantle
coupling, while changes over shorter periods were thought to be caused
by atmospheric excitations. Identifying the nature of the physical interactions
between the magnetic field and climate was emphasized as a key area of
future research.
Another study relating Earth rotation and magnetic field variations
was presented by Y. Yokoyama (Univ. Industrial Technology). Two main decadal
variations with periods of 30 and 60 years are observed in both rotation
and field, which implies core-mantle coupling on these time scales. While
the 60-year rotational variation is due mainly to an axial torque, the
30-year variation is due predominantly to an equatorial torque. The corresponding
30-year magnetic variation exhibits a 180-degree phase change wh ich is
not evident in the Earth rotation variations. It was indicated that these
features provide useful constraints on the possible core-mantle coupling
mechanisms.
In a related study, H. Greiner-Mai examined the possibility of
non-axial rotations of the outer core based on geomagnetic variations.
The interpretations were based on similarities between the spectra of the
magnetic field variations and polar motion. It was argued on the basis
of the spectra that coupling responsible for the polar motion could not
result from magnetic torques, presumably because the non-axial rotation
of the outer core was too small. A more effective coupling mechanism was
required to a ccount for the observations.
Improvements in the analysis of Earth rotation observations were
also discussed in this session. The poster by R. Gross (Jet Propulsion
Lab.) examined the diverse measurement techniques used to determine Earth
rotation and how these measurements could be combined to generate a time
series that spans the longest possible interval. In this study, all available
independent observations of the Earth's rotation were combined in a self-consistent
manner that took into account the diverse nature of the raw obse rvations.
The decadal variations were isolated from the combined Earth rotation series,
and the torques that must act on the solid Earth to generate these observed
decade-scale variations were computed.
Several presentations dealt with theoretical or experimental studies
of fluid flow in the vicinity of the CMB. B. Buffett (Univ. British Columbia)
presented a calculation of the magnetic field induced by the flow of the
core past a bumpy mantle with fini te conductivity. The induced magnetic
field was shown to be as large as 1 - 2 G for typical seismic estimates
of CMB topography. The wavelength of the induced field was determined by
the wavelength of the boundary topography and it was suggested that the
induction due to long-wavelength topography might contribute the apparently
static features observed in the magnetic field.
R. Davis (Leeds Univ.) and K. Whaler (Univ. Edinburgh) presented
some preliminary experimental investigations of the spin-up of a neutrally
buoyant fluid. Particular attention was given to the role of boundary topography.
The experiments showed that mid- and high-latitude topography had the largest
effects, producing Taylor columns for westward flow and damped Rossby waves
for eastward flow. Strong time-dependence was also observed for westward
flow with the detachment of patches of cyclonic vorticity an d cyclonic-anticyclonic
vortex pair interaction over the topography. Possible connects between
the experimental results and the core flow inferred from secular variation
were noted. Improved estimates of the core flow were then obtained from
the secular-v ariation coefficients by making a simple extension of the
steady-flow approximation. They permitted the steady velocity field to
drift with respect to a frame of reference fixed to the mantle and obtained
improved fits to the secular variation coefficient s. In particular they
found that the largest improvements were produced over a 20 year interval
centered on the 1970 magnetic jerk.
A theoretical study by K. Moffatt (Univ. Cambridge), D. Loper,
and H. Shimizu (Florida State Univ.) investigated the horizontal velocity
and poloidal magnetic field produced at the top of the core by a small
buoyant parcel in the uppermost core in the li mit of small Rossby number
and small magnetic Reynolds number. Viscous effects were neglected, leaving
one dynamic parameter, the Elsasser number (denoted as 1/N2), measuring
the strength of the Lorentz force relative to the Coriolis force. In the
limit o f strong Coriolis force, a localized buoyancy distribution produces
a disturbance of velocity and magnetic field extending a distance 1/N2
in the direction of the angular velocity vector (a foreshortened Taylor
column), while the limit of strong Lorentz f orce, a localized buoyancy
distribution produces a disturbance of velocity and magnetic field extending
a distance 1/N in the direction of the applied magnetic field. The linearized
problem of a Gaussian buoyant parcel near the CMB was analyzed using a
do uble Fourier transform in the limit of strong Coriolis force. The horizontal
velocity distribution at the CMB is found to be dominantly geostrophic
in this limit (i.e., with no horizontal divergence to dominant order),
and the poloidal field produced by t he upwelling parcel is small, of order
1/N2 times the magnetic Reynolds number.
C. Denis (Univ. Liége) examined the question of boundary
conditions at the CMB for tidal deformations and seismic normal mode spectra.
It was shown that the choice of free-slip or no-slip boundary conditions
at a fluid-solid interface can cause large dif ferences in the calculated
results. The calculations indicated that the choice of boundary conditions
at the CMB significantly altered certain normal modes and the load (Love)
numbers. The choice of boundary conditions at the inner core boundary was
found to be less important.
In a related study, C. Denis and Y. Rogister (Univ. Liége)
considered the static deformation of the Earth and the liquid-core paradox.
The paradox was first noted by Longman who showed that static solutions
require either a solenoidal displacement field in the core or a neutral
stratification. Physical and mathematical arguments were presented to identify
the source of the paradox and to reveal the shortcomings of the concept
of static Love numbers in planets with fluid cores.
V. Zharov and N. Chujkova (Sternberg State Astronomical Inst.)
examined the possible consequence of convective flow on the position of
the inner core. Flow along the rotation axis in the fluid core might lift
the inner core, leading to a change in the co re's angular momentum and
a variation in the Earth's gravity field. The angular momentum changes
would be most easily detected in polar motion observations. Quantitative
predictions were made for two possible situations.
A global dynamic view was presented by A. Vogel (Free Univ. Berlin).
An attempt was made to construct a pattern of mantle-wide convection which
relates the dynamics of the core-mantle boundary with lithospheric structures.
The idea of convection tectonic s was introduced as a conceptual framework
to explain the entirety and complexity of global geotectonic processes.
C. Denis and P. Varga (Geodetic and Geophysical Research Inst.,
Sopron) presented some new information which indicated that the deceleration
of the Earth in the Proterozoic was significantly smaller than it was in
the Paleozoic. These new data solve the old problem of the Moon being within
the Roche limit in too near a geological past, but raise the question of
why the rate of deceleration should be so small over much of Earth's history.
Changes in the ellipticity of the Earth, which accompany changes in the
Earth's rotation, were calculated as a function of geological time. The
slow decrease in the surface flattening builds up significant membrane
stress in the layer situated above the isotherm 600 C. It was suggested
that this stress might be responsib le for the original breakup of the
surface layer into lithospheric plates.
The long-standing issue of Chandler-wobble excitation was examined
by M. Furuya, Y. Hamano (Univ. Tokyo) and I. Naito (National Astronomical
Observatory, Mizusawa). Although the atmospheric role is generally favored,
its contribution to the Chandler is s till estimated to be insufficient
and other sources, such as seasonal redistribution of water mass, are invoked
to make up the shortfall. In this study, however, the authors demonstrate
that the Chandler wobble is resonantly excited by atmospheric winds. The
non-seasonal wobble was determined using the atmospheric angular momentum
variation and the results were compared with the observed wobble. The wind-induced
wobble yielded the correct amplitude when the Chandler period was adjusted
to 430.3 days and t he predicted phase agrees well with the observed phase.
Atmospheric mass redistribution, which has been believed to be the primary
candidate for atmospheric excitation, acted to cancel out the overshoot
of the wind effect.
The session was concluded with the invited oral presentation of
R. Boehler (Max-Planck-Institut für Chemie, Mainz) on core-mantle
melting and chemical interactions. A review of the melting results on iron
showed that large systematic deviations exist between static and shock
experiments. Shock temperature measurements are still subject to large
experimental uncertainties and there is evidence of overshoot from shock
measurements at lower pressures. Static measurements from three groups
show excellent agreement and extrapolation of his own measurements to 2
Mbars yields a temperature at the inner core - outer core boundary of slightly
below 5000 K. Various amounts of oxygen do not seem to lower the melting
point of pure iron at pressures of the outer core. These measurements result
in a temperature jump across the core-mantle boundary of at least 1300
K. This may not effect the viscosity in the lower mantle to the extent
previously assumed because the melting measurements on (Mg,Fe)SiO3 perovskite
yie ld extremely high melting temperatures for the lower mantle, in excess
of 7000 K. New measurements on MgO and (Mg,Fe)O show a surprising crossing
of their melting curves with that of perovskite near 500 kbar, lowering
the upper bounds for the solidus at t he core-mantle boundary to about
5000 K. It was shown that MgO and MgSiO3 perovskite react entirely differently
with molten iron at the P-T conditions of the core-mantle boundary. Dry
MgSiO3 seems to be inert to molten iron whereas MgO qualitatively shows
strong reactions. This could lead to a dense, iron-rich magnesiowustite
phase that could gravitationally segregate to the bottom of the lower mantle
and may provide an alternative explanation of the change in physical properties
in the D''region.
Contributed by B. Buffett, Univ. British Columbia.
D. G. Isaak, O. L. Anderson, K. Masuda and D. Guo (Univ. California,
Los Angeles) considered the uniqueness of the assumption that iron in the
inner core is in the hcp phase and examined the hypothesis that the inner
core could be in the fcc phase. Altho ugh the theoretical models developed
by Cohen and Stixrude give virtually the same densities at high P (and
low T) for both phases, is does not necessarily follow that these two phases
would have the same density at high P and high T. The thermal pressure
arising from vibrational energy has to be considered in order to get the
correct temperature effect. Experimental work on the bulk modulus of fcc
iron at low P and high T (1400 K), along with estimates of the thermal
expansivity, allow an estimate of the thermal equation of state of iron
in the fcc phase. From this work, it is found that fcc iron at inner-core
conditions might have the same density as hcp iron, or it could be a few
tenths of a gram less dense because of uncertainties in the extrapolation
s. Further work is needed, but the possibility remains that the amount
of light impurities in the core is less than that calculated by Jephcoat
and Olson.
X. Song and D. Helmberger (California Inst. Tech.) gave an update
on the reported anisotropy of seismic waves in the inner core. They confirmed
earlier reports of an axisymmetric anisotropy of about 3%, the fast direction
being parallel to the Earth's ro tation axis. They explored the depth dependence
of the anisotropy and found a 1% velocity increase at the top 300 km and
a 3% increase below, indicating a layered structure at the equator of the
inner core.
O. Anderson, K. Masuda and D. Guo reported on the calculation
of thermal expansivity, a, at high P and T for silicate perovskite, using
their new thermodynamic theory. They found that the isotherms of a(P) converge
at high P (about) 40 GPa), making a at high P independent of temperature.
This convergence makes the value of a at pressures throughout the lower
mantle independent of the model parameters: about 2 x 10-5 K-1 at the top
of the lower mantle and about 1 x 10-5 K-1 at the bottom. Thus one can
spe ak of a consensus on a at lower-mantle conditions from one thermodynamic
model to another. For other physical properties, such as, for example,
the isentropic density distribution, there is no consensus of values from
one model to another. The value of th e Grüneisen parameter, g, is found
to be critical to the calculations, and future research on physical properties
will center on finding g for silicate perovskite.
S. Karato (Univ. Minnesota) discussed the physical properties
that, from his viewpoint, most affect mantle dynamics: density and rheology.
He pointed out that while rheology is important, many dynamic studies consider
only density contrasts - a problem a rising from the paucity of rheological
data.
Recent rheological measurements (up to the equivalent of 300 km
depth) have made it possible to calculate viscosity due to diffusion creep,
especially in olivine. Studies of the degree of softening (arising from
changes in grain size) associated with pha se changes have been very revealing.
These experimental studies have shown that crystal structure may be more
important than density in controlling rheological properties. A significant
grain-size reduction leads to a significant rheological weakening. Th is
has led to some very interesting hypotheses about the dynamics of the subducting
oceanic lithosphere. (The reporter would add two other physical properties
that are important to mantle dynamics: thermal expansivity - quite apart
from density - and phas e changes.)
W. R. Peltier and X. Xiang (Univ. Toronto) discussed the nature
of three variables that constrain the viscosity of the lower half of the
lower mantle. Two are associated with the non-tidal acceleration of planetary
rotation, and one is associated with th e ongoing secular drift of the
pole of rotation towards Greenland. They discussed the extent to which
the relatively high viscosity in the lowermost part of the lower mantle
required by the good data is allowed by the non-tidal acceleration of rotation
an d polar wander measurements (best explained by post-glacial rebound).
P. Wu (Univ. Calgary) discussed post-glacial rebound in terms
of non-linear rheology. Laboratory results indicate that the upper mantle
may deform under a power-law creep rheology, while linear rheology is sufficient
to explain the observations of reboun d. An ongoing investigation is exploring
the possibility that the rheology if the whole mantle may be seen as obeying
a linear law, even though the creep law for individual grains may be non-linear.
Contributed by O. Anderson, Univ. California, Los Angeles.
The link with large scale dynamics is also strengthened, with
more joint inversions [A. Forte (Institut de Physique du Globe, Paris)
and R. Woodward (US Geological Survey, Albuquerque); P. Shearer & J.
P. Morgan (Univ. California, San Diego)]. With the p rovocative title "Global
seismic tomography - what use is it anyway?", G. Masters (Univ. California,
San Diego) offered a very fair and complete review of the important findings
and limitations of global tomography. By showing results of synthetic tomogra
phic inversions performed on numerical convection models (computed by Tackley
et al.), he gave the start of a new era, in which seismologists and dynamicists
understand and accept each other's strengths and weaknesses, an approach
also advocated by H.-C. Nataf, Y. Ricard (École Normale Supérieure),
J.-P. Montagner and P. Lognonné (Institut de Physique du Globe,
Paris). Contributions in large-scale dynamics included investigation of
convection in presence of heterogeneities in boundaries [K. Kurita and
M. Kuri (Univ. Tsukuba)] and plume trajectories in a convecting mantle
[R. O'Connell and B. Steinberger (Harvard Univ.)].
Much of the discussion was around the effect of the endothermic
phase transition at 660 km. It is clearly recognized as one of the major
ingredients of mantle convection. The key question is: how much layering
does it produce in the real Earth? And the measure of layering can very
well be different for various phenomena: vertical flow at short- and long-wavelength,
temperature drop across the thermal boundary layer, dynamic topography,
etc. From the modeling perspective, there are two big question marks: the
treatment of the kinetics of the transition, and the influence of subducting
plates on the overall behavior. From the observational point of view, several
contributions indicated a better agreement of seismological results with
a rather permeable 660 km boundary. Nevertheless, the transition zone remains
one of the least resolved region of the mantle.
Efforts were also directed at considering self-consistent models,
in which all the consequences of layering are introduced (thermal boundary
layers, and the effect on the viscosity profile, deflection of the boundary,
etc.).
Overall, a very constructive session, well in the multidisciplinary
spirit of SEDI. However, the debate would have benefited from views of
geochemists and regional tomographers, who were not present.
Contributed by Henri-Claude Nataf, École Normale Supérieure.
R. Kind (Potsdam) and collaborators, using converted phases and
underside reflection studies, presented evidence for localized sharpness
of the 410 km boundary (< 5 km) but reported that the 600 km boundary
appeared more gradual (similar to 20 km). Bound aries were also seen at
220 km and 900 km in at least some areas but not at 520 km. A. Yamazaki
and K. Hirahara (Kyoto) found sharp boundaries at both 660 km and 410 km
near the Tonga subduction zone. V. S. Solomatov and D. J. Stevenson (California
Inst. Tech.) considered ways to produce a sharp 660 km boundary, arguing
that boundary sharpness was not explicable in terms of equilibrium thermodynamics
but must involve kinetic effects of hysteresis in the phase transitions.
C. A. Stewart (New York) consider ed the kinetic delay in transformation
of olivine to be controlled by deviatoric stress. Inhibition to convection
through 660 km by the negative Clapeyron slope of the phase transition
at that depth is accepted as the principal cause of slab compression a
nd deformation as observed by S.-X. Zhang and A. Y. Li under Izu-Bonin.
C. R. Bina (Northwestern Univ.) and G. R. Hellfrich suggested that the
Clapeyron slope of the 660 km transition is less than that at 10 km although
undulations of the 660 km boundary appear to be greater. It may be possible
to reconcile these apparently conflicting observations in terms of the
kinetic effects discussed by other speakers. There is also the important
difference that the Clapeyron slopes are opposites in sign; the 660 km
transition inhibits convection but the 410 km transition assists it. No
speakers referred specifically to the entropies of the transitions. A Clapeyron
slope of any sign and magnitude is only important if the entropy and volume
changes are substantial. I t is evident that we are still groping for a
satisfying treatment of the effects of phase transitions on mantle convection.
Neither can we yet claim to have resolved the question of a compositional
variation across 660 km. R. J. Hemley and C. R. Bina (Nor thwestern Univ.)
reported that Fe enrichment of the lower mantle was disallowed but Si enrichment
was possible. However, there were some unresolved questions about relevant
equations of state and I. N. S. Jackson (Australian National Univ.) showed
that ne ither equations of state nor earth-model results were yet adequate
to settle the composition question.
Two papers argued for substantial undulation of the core-mantle
boundary. A. M. Forte and A. M. Dziewonski (Harvard Univ.) interpreted
the lower-mantle velocity anomalies in recent tomographic models to relate
directly to density variations and hence to a convective flow pattern that
would cause substantial (plus/minus 6 km) boundary topography. J. Bloxham
and W. Kuang (Harvard Univ.) found that undulations of several kilometers
were needed to explain observed decade-scale length-of-day variations by
cor e-mantle coupling. They pointed out that conventional hydrodynamic
core-mantle coupling had been misunderstood and could not have the required
effect, but they developed instead a theory of magneto-topographical coupling.
If electromagnetic core-mantle co upling is found to be clearly inadequate
then such topography will be unavoidable but is not yet universally agreed
to be necessary. Direct observation remains elusive except for the excess
ellipticity. P. M. Mathews and I. I. Shapiro convincingly confirm ed the
0.5 km excess bulge of the core-mantle boundary (CMB) first reported by
T. Herring and others on the basis of forced nutation observations by V.L.B.I.
There is now general agreement that the layer immediately above
the CMB (D'') differs from the overlying mantle and that the difference
is not explicable simply as a thermal boundary layer, although the necessity
for core cooling demands that D''includes a thermal boundary. The nature
of D''is subject to widely differing ideas. A crucial question is the sharpness
and depth variability of the top of D''. H.-C. Nataf and S. Houard (École
Normale Supérieure) suggested that a phase transition is probably
res ponsible. If so it should be marked by a discontinuity in properties
and should be a global feature. This is given some support by the widespread
observation of D''reflections, although, in common with other observers
Nataf and Houard have not detected re flections everywhere. T. Shibutani
(Kyoto Univ.) and collaborators gave additional support for the D''discontinuity
with evidence of a 1% to 1.5% velocity jump near 289 km above the CMB under
the Western Pacific. G. Poupinet (Grenoble) and A. Souriau soug ht evidence
of rapid lateral variations within D''that would give inclined areas of
the upper boundary and cause complex reflections of the kind analyzed by
J. Neuberg and T. Ponter (Univ. Leeds). J. M. Kendall and P. M. Shearer
(Univ. California, San Die go) found D''thickness ranging between 150 km
and 250 km, which appears difficult to reconcile with a phase transition,
and perhaps favors lateral thermal and chemical heterogeneity. Also, we
should still allow that a distinct D''layer may be completely a bsent from
some areas. Substantial lateral velocity variations near the base of the
mantle reported by R. Valnzuela et al. (St. Louis Univ.) are consistent
with very strong lateral gradients in D''structure that may obscure any
radial stratification. The difficulties in interpreting the D''region are
compounded by the possibility that D''is anisotropic, which was considered
by V. Maupin (Oslo).
Ideas about the origin of D''are also diverse. D. J. Stevenson
(California Inst. Tech.) considered several alternatives, dismissing all
but the suggestion that D''contains remnants of subducted slabs. But no
more than 10% of the slab material can reach t he core-mantle boundary,
without requiring too high a fraction of the geothermal flux to originate
in the core and then where is the other 90%? Can we expect cool slab material
to survive intact to this depth? Another suggestion that has been the subject
of strenuous debate in recent years is a contribution to D''by chemical
reaction across the CMB. T. J. Ahrens and X. Song (California Inst. Tech.)
gently rewarmed the discussion by showing that a reaction in which iron
is lost by pervoskite and free SiO2 is formed is thermodynamically admissible.
A. M. Dziewonski and W.-J. Su reported that tomographic anomalies in D''were
correlated with those above it and questioned the distinctness of D''.
The commonly assumed but not universally agree idea that D''is t he source
of plume was implicit in a 3-D numerical model study by P. E. van Keken
and C. W. Gable (Los Alamos National Lab.) of the interaction of a plume
with a boundary marking a strong viscosity contrast (660 km). They found
plume pulsation, postulated to account for the production of chains of
discrete islands by hot-spots, to occur only with high viscosity contrasts.
J. Troup (Harvard Univ.) presented a new analysis, with a larger
number of free-oscillation modes than hitherto, of the mode splitting by
inner-core anisotropy. He matched the data to a model having varying anisotropy
within the inner core and found that it was consistent also with observations
that P waves are faster in the axial direction than in equatorial directions.
The reality of inner-core anisotropy cannot now be doubted. Its cause is
a matter of fundamental interest. The most probable explanatio n to date
appears to be one presented at the Mizusawa SEDI meeting by M. Kumazawa,
who suggested that growth of the inner core by solidification of outer-core
material occurred more strongly at the equator and that the resulting excess
ellipticity of the inner core continuously relaxed towards equilibrium,
causing crystal alignment by the deformation. Plausibility of this process
relies upon a persistent difference between the outer-core circulations
in equatorial and polar regions. That such a difference is expected was
shown by G. A. Glatzmaier (Los Alamos National Lab.) and P. L. Olson (Johns
Hopkins Univ.) who reported numerical simulations of magneto-convection
in the core with different behavior within and outside an axial cylinder
tangent to the in ner core. It remains to show that Kumazawa's theory is
consistent with Troup's model.
Attenuation in the inner core is much stronger than was supposed
until recently. A. Souriau and P. Roudil (Toulouse) found Q < 200 in
the outer 300 km of the inner core for waves in the frequency range 0.1
Hz to 1 Hz. There appears to be an absorption pe ak at about 1 Hz. It is
unlikely that the much higher Qs at free oscillation periods can be dramatically
revised downwards. Thus the strong frequency-dependence of Q in the inner
core is believed to be real. That a low Q in hot iron at seismic frequencies
is to be expected was the conclusion of laboratory studies by I. N. S.
Jackson (Australian National Univ.). For iron of two difference carbon
contents at 1200 degrees C and 300 MPa he found not only very low Q but
a corresponding strong frequency depende nce of the shear modulus. At 1
s period the value was only half that at ultrasonic frequencies and at
300 s it was a further 16% less. Not many years ago the high value of Poisson's
ratio for the inner core appeared paradoxical. Now we have more explanati
ons than we need!
Contributed by Frank Stacey (Univ. Queensland) and Thorne Lay
(Univ. California, Santa Barbara).
One main part of the symposium contained investigations on the
formation and evolution of the planet Earth on a global scale. D. J. Stevenson
(together with V. S. Solomatov) presented both an overview on the modeling
of the earliest Earth and new results on the physics of crystallisation
of a terrestrial magma ocean. Stevenson pointed out that giant impacts
could transport energy deep into the interior and make it relatively hotter
than upper regions. Melting and vigorous convection can produce crystalli
sation without substantial chemical differentiation of the deep mantle,
and isotope systematics may preserve a record of this period. C. A. Steward,
M. R. Rampino, and C. Robinson presented a new possibility for the triggering
of a mantle plume: according to their results, a giant meteorite impact
can produce a shock wave front that produces peak pressures and deviatoric
stress at 400 km depth that can significantly enhance the kinetics of nucleation
and growth of spinel in olivine. This transformation an d the corresponding
back transformation result in a dissipation of the mechanical shock energy
as heat that can influence plume location in the convectively unstable
mantle. R. Honda, H. Mizurani, and T. Yamamoto investigated core formation
simultaneously with Earth accretion and showed how iron drops could sink
through plastic flow such that a core would be mostly completed by the
end of the accretion process.
The effect of water-dependent creep rate on the volatile exchange between
mantle and surface reservoirs was modeled by S. Franck and C. H. Thuermer.
They found a rapid outgassing of mantle water within a time scale of less
than 200 Myr. Such an event is supported by geochemical investigations
of noble-gas isotopic ratios. The importance of deep fluid flow for the
chemical composition and structure of the Earth's crust and mantle was
shown by M. V. Rodkin. He discussed Benioff zones and processes at the
A rchaeozoic-Proterozoic boundary as examples of the resulting changes
in composition. P. J. Tackley, D. J. Stevenson, G. A. Glatzmaier, and G.
Schubert investigated 3-dimensional spherical models of mantle convection
that include the phase transitions at 4 00 km and 670 km depth. They varied
the Clapeyron slope for these transitions within the current range of uncertainty
and demonstrated the accumulation of cold material, huge catastrophic "avalanches",
and broad cylindrical downwellings to the base of the mantle. M. F. Osmaston
presented a new view of the global evolution of the Earth's interior taking
into account the effect that under certain conditions silicate melts will
be denser that the local solid mantle and therefore will gravitate downward.
He p roposed a new 4-step scenario for the Earth history with the occurrence
of subduction-like processes very early after planetary formation.
The interpretation of seismic-velocity heterogeneities not only
as lateral temperature variations but also as consequences of possible
significant chemical heterogeneities was given by A. M. Forte, A, M. Dziewonski,
and R. J. O'Connell. They found that i t is possible to divide certain
tomographic models into one part correlated with differences between continents
and oceans (extending to depths exceeding 400 km) and another part of primarily
thermal origin. V. A. Nikolaev estimated the world stress field using tidal
triggering by taking into account the difference of earthquake numbers
occurring during compressive and tensile phases of the tidal vector modulus
and its components. He showed that the temporal variation of the predominant
phases distributio n hints at a dominantly West-East tension during this
century.
There were further contributions related mainly to the present
states of certain parts of the Earth's interior, to the discussion of regional
effects, and to inferences from laboratory models. Thus, from laboratory
studies T. Yagi and H. Yusa showed that a new, unquenchable high-pressure
form of Ca3A12Si04 is stable in the orthorhombic perovskite crystal structure
above 30 GPa; with a bulk modulus of 288 GPa it is a possible lower-mantle
phase for calcium. From shock wave equations of state T. J. Ahrens and
T. Duffy obtained thermal expansion coefficients of perovskite and perovskite
+ magnesiowustite crystal structures at pressures above 100 GPa that favor
iron and silica enrichment in the lower mantle. As a caution to over-interpretation
of laboratory data S. Rigden and I. Jackson demonstrated that systematic
errors can enter when, say, compositional models extrapolated from laboratory
conditions have densities differing by less than 1%. F. Mulargia and F.
Quareni showed that, at temperatures only half that of the melting temperature,
the leading-order anharmonic parameters differ from the quasi-harmonic
terms by as much as tens of percent in the Grüneisen parameter and
specific heat, again indicating the importance of anharmonicity in equations
of st ate applied to the deep Earth.
Considering electrical conductivity, T. J. Shankland, J.-P. Poirier,
and J. Peyronneau demonstrated that conductivities of perovskite and perovskite
+ magnesiowustite measured in diamond-anvil cells match those determined
from electromagnetic induction s tudies for the uppermost mantle; the parameters
used in extrapolation and interpolation leave so little room for temperature
or pressure to exert much influence that any lateral conductivity variations
might better be attributed to compositional rather th an thermal effects.
After extensive corrections for electrical currents induced around
New Zealand H. W. Dosso, J. Chen, C. J. Bromley, F. H. Charnalaun, M. R.
Ingham, and D. McKnight found anomalous electrical conductors associated
with faults and local geological features related to the plate subduction
boundary. H. Muller compared laboratory measurements of compressional and
shear-wave velocities made at crustal temperature and pressure of rocks
from the Erzgebirge in Saxony with a seismic profile in the region to produc
e a velocity-depth model and to infer the probable partial melting in the
deep crust of this region. E. S. Husebye and J. E. Lie described how 1730
km of reflection profiling beneath the Skagerrak Sea defined a seismic
reflector indicative of a structural fabric created during the Proterozoic;
reactivation of this zone of weakness during formation of the Oslo Rift
could explain the presumed simple shear extension of the Skagerrak Graben.
Because the usual elastic or isostatic models to explain the support mechanism
of seamounts produces a lithosphere that appears to be too thick, Y. Tomoda
and Y. Akiyama developed a model in which young seamounts are dynamically
supported by their underlying, less dense asthenosphere.
A conference volume to be published in Physics of the Earth and Planetary
Interiors is planned.
Reported by S. Franck (Univ. Potsdam) and T. J. Shankland (Los
Alamos National Lab.).
Global Tomography
Presentations by Ritzwoller et al., and Rodgers et al. addressed
the issue of resolving internal boundary topography from volumetric heterogeneities.
They argued that a combination of normal-mode data and body-wave travel
times is necessary to separate t he two effects, while differential body-wave
travel times, such as SS-S, are particularly unable to make the difference.
This problem, as well as the concern of mapping heterogeneities at the
wrong depth, because of surficial effects, was mentioned in sev eral presentations.
One way to constrain shallow layers is to use shorter period (30
s) surface waves. This was the approach followed by Trampert and Woodhouse,
and by Tromp and Ekstrom. Improvements on the data side also included mapping
VS/VP and attenuation (Woodhouse an d Robertson).
Theoretical advances were presented by Clevede and Lognonne, who
found a way to invert seismograms efficiently by using multiplet modulation
functions, while Li and Romanowicz perform a non-linear waveform inversion
considering cross-modal coupling. Bias es of tomographic inversion were
pointed out by Trampert and Snieder, who propose ways to reduce spectral
leakage.
Mantle Dynamics
The link between tomography and geodynamics was the topic of several
talks of that session. A model constrained by the two ends was proposed
by Forte et al., while Maruyama et al., and Corrieu et al., pointed out
the link between past tectonics and prese nt heterogeneities. Particularly
impressive is the correspondence between lower-mantle fast anomalies and
the inferred position of old slabs. Dziewonski & Su showed a model
with slow anomalies extending very deep into the mantle, beneath ridges.
The base of the mantle is found to be very heterogeneous, and
its importance for understanding mantle dynamics was pointed out by Obayashi
et al., and Wysession.
Impressive computations of convection in a 3D box with variable
viscosity were presented by Tackley.
Lithosphere, asthenosphere, ridges and hotspots
Lay and coworkers reviewed recent advances in the mapping of fine
structures beneath the lithosphere, and pointed out an apparent connection
at depth between ridges and some hotspots, and a correlation between VS
anomalies and surface volume flux. At a s maller scale, Achauer et al.
compared VP and density anomalies in two different rift environments. They
find that in the Kenyan rift, velocity anomalies are very large (±
10%), implying a lower density/velocity variation than usually assumed.
Both talks r aised the question of relating seismic velocity to temperature.
This was taken up by Jackson and Fitz Gerald, who measured the shear modulus
of dunite over a large range of frequencies. The results are fundamental
for relating seismic velocity and attenua tion anomalies to temperature.
Anelasticity is shown to increase the sensitivity of shear modulus to temperature
by at least 50%, when going from ultrasonic to seismic frequencies.
Several new models of regional tomography were presented, from
the scale of Mount Erebus (Luo and Dibble) to that of Antarctica (Roult
et al.), in many different tectonic environments (Taiwan: Ma and Zhao;
Iceland: Kaban et al.; Central Asia: Zielhuis; A ustralia: Vahau; etc.).
An iterative non-linear travel-time tomography method was tested by Kamiya
& Koketsu in the Japanese region.
Several studies pertained to the dynamics of hotspot plumes, from
tail to head, with particular emphasis on the time variations (Ribe and
Christensen; Houseman; Bercovici; Theissing and Spohn).
Phase transitions and slab dynamics
Van der Hilst and Engdahl reviewed how recent tomographic images
of slabs have greatly enriched our vision of mantle dynamics. They proposed
a simple scenario, illustrated by laboratory slab experiments, in which
the morphology of slabs is controlled by trench retreat and an increase
of viscosity at the 660 km discontinuity. Fixed trenches produce slabs
that go straight into the lower mantle, while retreating trenches causes
the slab to lay down at the discontinuity. A similar unifying idea was
behind th e models of Yamanaka and Seno, who give a good fit to stress
distribution in slabs, provided the lower-mantle viscosity is high enough
(3-7 1022 Pa s).
The key role of phase transitions in mantle dynamics was recalled
by Tackley et al., who pointed out the differences, for various global
observables, between the different possible dynamic regimes. Robust methods
to learn more about the actual regime in the mantle from tomographic images
were proposed by Puster and Jordan.
The basic physics of phase transitions was not ignored: Morris
pointed out the importance of the small-scale mass-transfer that must take
place during phase transitions. A better understanding and modeling of
this effect is crucial for the analysis of th e kinetics of the transitions.
This, in turn, is very important for both the dynamical models with phase
transition, and the inferences made from the topography of the seismic
discontinuities, which is just starting to be determined by seismologists
(Vasc o et al.).
This report was prepared by Henri-Claude Nataf (École Normale
Supérieure).
As the first speaker, S. Balachandar pointed out, there are three
main issues for high-performance computing: efficient and accurate computations,
data compression and storage, and interpretation and post-processing large
data sets. The first issue is th e area most people think of when they
hear the phrase, "high performance computing," but data compression and
post-processing present equally important challenges. For example, storing
the output from a three-dimensional computation, which has 256 nodes a
long each side, with four variables at each node-be it mantle convection,
ocean or atmospheric circulation, or seismic wave modeling-for 5,000 time
steps requires 2.6 terabytes of storage. While computers and algorithms
to consider such a grid may exist, the infrastructure in networking and
disk storage makes storing the results of such a computation unfeasible
within the present infrastructure.
As many speakers pointed out, moderate sized 3-D fluid dynamical
calculations are now feasible on computers ranging from large workstations,
or clusters of workstations, to massive parallel supercomputers like the
Intel Delta or Thinking Machines CM5. H. -P. Bunge showed that a 3-D finite
element code using explicit message passing and PVM communication software
could be used on a cluster of workstations to solve some previously-unaddressable
geodynamical problems. In addition, the use of a widely-impleme nted message
passing package makes such a code easier to port across platforms.
There were two main thrusts of the fluid algorithm talks: solving
the resulting sparse matrix equations, and exploring high-order methods.
For large simulations, the most widely-used numerical methods
are based on spectral discretizations and the resulting matrix equations
are solved using a multi-grid technique. Paul Tackley showed that these
methods are feasible on a massively parallel MI MD platform using standard
FORTRAN and message-passing libraries. The implementation of his code required
parallel FFT and Legendre transform routines. As Tackley showed, the multi-grid
solver and FFT routines performed very well as the number of processo rs
and size of the problem increased; however, the Legendre transform did
not perform as well as the problem size increased. Later in the session,
Bengt Fornberg presented an effectively FFT based periodic pseudo-spectral
approximation to avoid the proble ms presented by the Legendre transforms
in spherical geometries.
For problems with large variations in material properties over
a small spatial scale, such as temperature-dependent viscosity in mantle
convection, spectral methods usually give way to local methods, such as
finite difference or finite element techniques . In these problems, the
main obstacle is the solution of the resulting sparse matrix equation.
Because of the size of the resulting matrices, an iterative method is required
for problems of reasonable size. As M. Parmentier pointed out, multi-grid
offers the best theoretical convergence for constant material property
problems; he was able to solve moderate sized 3-D problems on a workstation
with a multi-grid finite-difference technique. G. Davies extended a multi-grid
finite-difference technique to solv e problems with 500-3000 fold variations
in viscosity by reducing the amplitude of the viscosity variations on successively
coarser grids. S. King presented the overlapping Schwartz method (OSM),
a relatively new method for solving matrix equations arisin g from PDE's.
OSM is a domain decomposition method where preconditioning of the subdomains
overlaps the domains. Overlapping reduces the residual on the edge nodes
of the subdomain, accelerating the convergence of the method. King found
encouraging result s on 3-D temperature-dependent problems with a factor
of 1,000 variation in viscosity. S. Balachandar showed that spectral- transform
methods can be used for temperature-dependent viscosity 3-D convection
up to an effective Rayleigh number of 6 x 106. The momentum equation is
solved iteratively using the GMRES technique, where the depth-dependent
part of the momentum equation operator is treated as a preconditioner.
This preconditioner guarantees accurate satisfaction of mass conservation
and boundary con ditions and also accelerates convergence.
P. van Keken implementing DASPK, a code using the differential-algebraic
method for time-stepping with a commercially available finite- element
code SEPRAN. The resulting finite-element code is fifth-order accurate
in time, which can save considerable co mputer time for strongly time-dependent
flows. A. Malevsky discussed the implementation of the method of characteristics
on the Connection Machine with fourth- order spatial accurate bi-cubic
splines. He stressed the efficiency of higher-order finite-diff erence
methods on distributed memory parallel computers. T. Larsen presented results
for 3-D convection up to Rayleigh number of 108 for various order of finite-difference
schemes, based on Fornberg's algorithm. She found that higher-order methods,
such a s 8th order, are far superior to lower-order (second-order) methods
in the high Rayleigh number regime. In her poster, S. Zhang also presented
higher-order finite-difference methods as applied to 3-D spherical-shell
convection, where spherical harmonics u p to degree 256 and 150 higher-order
finite-difference points were used in the radial direction. The 3-D structures
were visualized by a volume rendering technique with a resolution up to
300x300x300. Efficient algorithms for visualizing these large data- sets
efficiently were presented in the neighboring poster by David Reuteler.
L. Trenish presented examples of visualization taken from IBM
Visualization Data Explorer. Issues concerning data management and implementation
on various platforms were also displayed. The problems encountered in processing
and visualizing of large data -sets taken from oceanographic expeditions
were presented by Liu et al., who have employed the GLORIA system for this
purpose. Numerical simulations of deep ocean convection models using the
CM5 were reported by Logan Kuiper in his poster. Finally, there were presentations
by the research group from the Earth Resources Group at MIT of seismic
wave calculations from a distributed memory parallel computer.
The session promoted an exchange of technical information across
disciplines not usually found at AGU sessions. It is our hope that, in
the future, we can broaden the range of participants to include areas of
the Union that were not well represented in t his session. We believe that
exchange of information across traditional discipline boundaries could
be very beneficial in the area of High Performance Computing.
Submitted by S. D. King, Purdue Univ., and D. A. Yuen, Univ. Minnesota.
27 talks of 25 minutes each were presented in Reinhausen which
ranged from dynamical problems of the Moon and Mars to the experimental
investigation of the motion of solitary hot blobs rising in cold glucose
syrup. Particular attention was directed towar ds the evolution in time
of convection systems. Although presentations of numerical models predominated,
results of several laboratory experiments were also presented. Many students
presented the results of their diploma theses which are the product of
a one-year project in contrast to doctoral theses which require an average
period of 3 years. Since the Workshop was designed to stimulate discussing
and interaction, participants were encouraged to talk on work in progress
and outlines of future projects. There is no place here to list all topics
discussed at the Workshop. It suffices to say that it has provided valuable
experience for students entering the field of geodynamics and that it has
accomplished its goal of an increased interaction among German geodynamicists
very well.
Contributed by F. H. Busse, Univ. Bayreuth.
A new program, "Decoding the Earth's Whole History," is expected
to start in April, 1995, with Professor M. Kumazawa (Univ. Tokyo) acting
as principal investigator. The program, comprising modeling of mantle convection
and core dynamics, attempts to deco de information contained in deep-sea
sediments back to 4 x 109 years ago with special emphasis on the events
at the boundaries between the Archean and Proterozoic and between the Permian
and the Triassic.
Another program, "A geophysical network on the Pacific hemisphere"
is now being prepared by a group headed by Professor Y. Fukao ( Univ. Tokyo)
and is to be initiated in 1996. The program is to extend a network of geophysical
observations including seism ograms, magnetometers and GPS instruments
both on the sea floor and on islands over the western half of the Pacific.
The ultimate goal is to clarify the structures and dynamics of the Earth's
deep interior based on the data acquired by the network, includ ing the
dynamics of the mantle and core and the coupling between the two.
Contributed by T. Yukutake, Kyushu Univ.
The CGU and CANSEDI have also recently hosted the successful SEDI
94 in Whistler, British Columbia. Thanks to David Crossley, Gary Jarvis,
and the rest of the local organizing committee for all the work they put
into this conference.
The single large collaborative project of CANSEDI is the operation
of the superconducting gravimeter at Cantley, Quebec. This instrument was
installed in late 1989 and operated continuously until the fall of 1993.
During this period it produced some of t he highest quality data yet obtained
from such an installation. A persistent problem however, had been the long
term drift, which, at half a m gal /day, was ten times larger than some
superconducting gravimeters had achieved. To correct this problem, the
instrument was shut down in late 1993, and returned to GWR for servicing.
It will be returned to service in the fall of 1994, and will participate
in the Global Geodynamics Program.
It is worthwhile at this point to review the remarkable operating
characteristics of the Cantley gravimeter, some of which are common to
all superconductors, but some are unique to this instrument. Despite the
large amplitude of the drift, it was very ne arly linear. After four years
of operation we could just detect a non-linear component of drift, and
not all of this could be attributed to the instrument because of a large
unmodeled hydrological signal. Cantley is almost unique among operating
stations in the characteristics of the seasonal surface water storage -
there is very little run-off from October to March, followed by a rapid
snow melt. This signal is on the order of ten microgal in gravity, and
makes the largest single contribution to long per iod residuals. Don Bower,
of the Geological Survey of Canada, has discussed a model for this phenomenon
at the SEDI 94 meeting.
Although superconducting gravimeters are difficult to calibrate,
compared with mechanical spring instruments, they maintain their calibration
exceptionally well. Indeed, month-by-month measurements of the admittances
of the principal tides at Cantley var y by only one part in 104, and there
is no evidence for any long-term change in calibration over four years.
The phase of the major tidal admittances is also remarkably stable, varying
by no more than 0.01 throughout the observation period.
Non-linear tide signals of about 20 nanogal have been detected,
but they are almost certainly the loading effect of non-linear tides on
the east coast of North America. This means that any possible non-linear
response in the instrument is at least 93 dB below the linear response.
It has been shown that the Cantley instrument faithfully tracks
subtidal band signals with amplitude less than a ngal. This is an important
result, because the signal level of core modes is unlikely to be much larger
than a nanogal, and so detection depe nds critically on how well the instrument
functions at this level. We can make this claim because atmospheric pressure
variations in the subtidal band generate gravity signals of a few ngal
or less, and we can accurately calculate these signals in gravity , given
the pressure. For example, the S7 harmonic of a day, and its annual and
semi-annual modulations, have amplitudes of about a microbar. The measured
variations in gravity at these frequencies are less than a ngal, and they
agree, in amplitude and in phase, with what is predicted on the basis of
the pressure measurements. A similar story is told at other harmonics of
a day in the subtidal band.
Contributed by Jim Merriam, Univ. Saskatchewan
A workshop on "Geomagnetic Polarity Reversals and Field Behavior From
ODP Sediments" was convened by B. Clement (Florida International Univ.)
7-8 November 7-8 1994 at Florida International University, Miami, FL. The
deep sea sediment cores obtained by th e Ocean Drilling Program provide
an opportunity to obtain a broad geographical distribution of records of
geomagnetic polarity reversal transitions. The primary goal of the workshop,
sponsored by JOI/USSAC, was to organize a collaborative study of existin
g ODP cores containing polarity transition records and to identify new
drilling sites likely to enhance the geographical coverage of transition
records. Topics and issues discussed include cataloging new and existing
transition records, assessing the fide lity of the paleomagnetic record,
comparison of igneous and sedimentary records, and the characteristics
of sites which produce high resolution records.
An informal Workshop on "Structure of the CMB and D''region" was
held at UC Berkeley on September 10-11. This multidisciplinary workshop,
organized by R. Jeanloz and B. Romanowicz (Univ. California, Berkeley),
focused on new seismological observations be aring on the core-mantle boundary
and D'' region. The objective is to consider the implications of the new
data, and to outline possible directions for future research.
CSEDI co-sponsored a meeting on Planetary Volatiles at California
Institute of Technology last month. T. Ahrens (California Inst. Tech.)
was the organize). A report of this meeting will appear in the next issue
of the DIALOG.
CSEDI has endorsed a proposal, submitted by G. Schubert (Univ.
California, Los Angeles), to initiate a Gordon Conference on "Composition,
Structure and Dynamics of the Earth's Interior."Workshop on Geomagnetism
in Studies of the Earth's Interior
Contributed by Louise Kellogg, Univ. California, Davis
The most interesting and lively portion of the meeting was the
presentation and discussion of the two invitations to hold the next SEDI
Symposium in 1996. The Australian invitation was presented by Kurt Lambeck,
and that for France was presented by Phil lipe Cardin. The Australian proposal
would have the symposium held in Brisbane the week of 23-27 July 1996,
in parallel with the Western Pacific AGU meeting. The advantage of this
arrangement is that AGU will handle most of the organizational matters.
Pre- and post-symposium excursions are being organized. The French proposal
would have the symposium in the historic town of Tours the week of 7-12
July 1996. The proposed title of the symposium is "From mantle to core
& vice-versa." Points raised in th e discussion included the following.
The meeting of the Committee on Mathematical Geophysics will probably be
held in Cambridge in 1996; the SEDI symposium should be coordinated with
this to avoid scheduling conflicts. Some expressed concern about the co
st of flights to Australia making the meeting there too costly for students.
However, the time is peak season for flights to Europe and off season for
Australia. Also Australia is inexpensive for Chinese scientists. Faced
with two strong and attractive in vitations, those in attendance at the
business meeting finally made the best choice - both were accepted! The
one substantive modification was that the French invitation was accepted
for 1998 rather than 1996. In summary, the 1996 Symposium will be held
i n Brisbane, Australia, the week of 23-27 July 1996 and the 1998 symposium
will be held in Tours, France, with the exact time not yet determined.
A summary of current plans for the SEDI 96 Symposium are found below;
the first announce ment is enclosed with this issue of the DIALOG.
The final item of business was a brief announcement concerning
the publication of the proceedings of the 1994 symposium. The invited review
lectures are being compiled into a Doornbos Memorial Volume entitled Earth's
Deep Interior, edited by David Crossl ey). This volume will be part of
a series of volumes The Fluid Mechanics of Astrophysics and Geophysics,
edited by Michael Ghil and Andrew Soward, published by Gordon and Breach.
A number of the contributed presentations have been submitted for publicatio
n in a special issue of Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors, guest
editors Henri-Claude Nataf and David Loper.
Contributed by David Loper, Florida State Univ.
Two further prizes were awarded from presentations at the SEDI
symposium in Whistler, Canada in August 1994. These went to Dr. R. Hollerbach
of the Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics, Los Alamos National
Laboratory, for his work on the import ance of the inner core for the nature
of the Earth's dynamo, and to Dr. R. E. Cohen of the Carnegie Institution
of Washington for work on theoretical models of the material properties
of iron under the conditions prevailing in the Earth's core.
The fund is currently administered by an informal committee chaired
by Brian Kennett, 2nd Vice-President of IASPEI, and a more formal structure
will be set in place at the forthcoming IUGG meeting in Boulder.
Contributions for the Doornbos Memorial Fund should be sent to
Dr. E. R. Engdahl, IASPEI Secretary General, U.S. Geological Survey, DFC,
Box 25046, Stop 967, Denver CO 80225, USA.
Contributed by Brian Kennett, Australian National Univ.
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Modern Geodetic Constraints on Earth Structure: VLBI, SLR, GPS and Superconducting
Gravimetry
Session 1 at the SEDI symposium proved to be a great success. In the first
invited talk J. Hinderer (Institut de Physique du Globe, Strasbourg) discussed
constraints structure and dynamics of the deep Earth from superconducting
gravimetry (SG). Particula r attention was focused on the accuracy of tidal
phase factors and amplitudes obtained using SG data and the influence of
these corrections on estimates of the resonance effect associated with
the nearly diurnal free wobble (NDFW). A discussion of the cor e-mantle
boundary (CMB) ellipticity estimated from the NDFW frequency generated
much discussion. Hinderer suggested that recent work indicated that this
ellipticity might be reconciled using mantle flow models which were constrained
by lower mantle hetero geneity reconstructed using ancient subduction events
(the models of Richards, Ricard, et al.). In a later talk, C. Denis (Univ.
de Liège) argued that the CMB ellipticity and non-hydrodynamic geoid
could both be reconciled using an altered reference (radi ally stratified)
Earth model. G. Masters (Univ. California, San Diego) suggested that the
perturbations described by Denis could not simultaneously reconcile normal-mode
data. The discussion ended with an agreement that three-dimensional convection
models could be useful in considering the problem, although the arbitrary
orientation of such models would make the exercise complex.
Core Dynamics and Thermodynamics
The second session consisted of eighteen poster papers and two invited
reviews. The poster papers are loosely divided into those dealing with
core oscillations (3), magneto convection (5), convection (3) structure
and evolution (5), and precession (2). K. Aldridge (York Univ.) and K.
Whaler (Univ. Edinburgh) gave invited presentations on laboratory experiments
in core dynamics, and core thermodynamics, respectively.
The geodynamo: theory and observational constraints
The third and fourth sessions of the symposium were devoted to the geodynamo,
which is governed by the coupled nonlinear partial differential equations
of magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) that control both the evolution of the fluid
velocity and of the magnet ic field in the core. According to Cowling's
theorem, the solutions must be fully three-dimensional (3D) if the collapse
of the field is to be prevented. The equations contain a number of parameters
whose large and small values pose further serious challe nges to the theoretician.
At first this "full MHD geodynamo problem" was shelved and attention was
confined to a simpler linear problem, the kinematic geodynamo problem,
in which it was assumed that the fluid flow was known and only the question
of how th at flow affected the magnetic field was addressed. The choice
of flow was however influenced by qualitative dynamical considerations.
It was soon recognized that the effects of rotation are strong in the core.
(The Ekman and Rossby numbers are two of the small parameters referred
to above; they measure inertial and viscous forces against Coriolis forces.)
As a consequence, thermal winds and other zonal motions should be significantly
larger than the rest of the flow, and should create zonal field from mer
idional field efficiently, the so-called w-effect. The creation of meridional
flow from zonal flow was however harder to understand, although it was
(Cowling's theorem) essential to the completion of the dynamo loop. It
was eventually found that the asymm etric fields created from the axisymmetric
field by the asymmetric motion would interact with that motion to produce
an axisymmetric electromotive force (emf) that would have a non-zero zonal
component that could drive the zonal currents required to susta in the
meridional field. This process is often parameterized by the so-called
a-effect.
Mantle Mixing and the Cooling Earth; a Symposium in Memory of J. Tuzo Wilson.
Session 5 consisted of 4 speakers and 14 poster papers. P. Tackley (California
Inst. Tech.) and R. Peltier (Univ. Toronto) discussed the effects of phase
transitions on convection in spherical geometry. Tackley's model results
were fully three dimensiona l and accompanied by a color video presentation,
but for relatively low Rayleigh numbers for the whole mantle. Peltier's
results were for the high Rayleigh numbers appropriate to the whole mantle
but were restricted to two-dimensional axisymmetric flows. Trade-offs between
the two models and their respective limitations and advantages were discussed
along with the possible influences of variable viscosity and rigid surface
plates. L. Kellogg (Univ. California, Davis) spoke on the development of
chemical b oundary layers at the CMB as a consequence of doubly-diffusive
convection driven by the flux of both heat and a chemically distinct dense
material into the base of the mantle from the core. For appropriate viscosity
laws a chemical boundary layer can be f ormed which thickens toward the
base of rising thermal plumes and which may reach a maximum thickness of
several hundred kilometers. In an effort to understand the origin of chemical
heterogeneity within the Earth's mantle, U. Hansen (Utrecht Univ.) discu
ssed, and showed videos of, two- and three-dimensional simulations of mixing
in convective flows which were performed in collaboration with colleagues
J. Schmalzl (Utrecht Univ.) and G. Houseman (Monash Univ.). Passive Lagrangian
tracers were inserted in the flow fields to monitor mixing behavior. At
high Rayleigh numbers the loss of large spatially coherent flow structures
leads to strongly enhanced mixing on all scales. All four oral presentations
generated vigorous discussion and audience participation .
Core-mantle interactions and Earth rotation.
The session began with an invited oral presentation by J.-L. Le Mouël
(Institut de Physique du Globe, Paris) on the exchanges of matter, heat
and angular momentum between the core and the mantle. It was argued that
transfer of iron from the core to the mantle due to the wetting of the
mantle oxide grain boundaries by iron from the core is not an efficient
way to increase the conductivity of a layer at the base of the mantle.
As for the exchange of heat, it was suggested that a thermally stratified
laye r several hundred kilometers thick could develop in the outer core,
depending on the heat transport across the core-mantle boundary. The main
emphasis of the talk was devoted to exchange of angular momentum and the
topographic coupling. It was shown that if the CMB has a hydrostatic figure,
the sum of the pressure and of the gravity torque acting on the mantle
due to the flow and the dynamo in the core is equal to the torque of the
axial component of the Lorentz force (multiplied by the flattening) even
i f the mantle is insulating.
Physical and Chemical Properties of the Deep Earth
The eleven papers were presented in this session can be divided onto five
categories that deal with a wide range of properties.
Iron phases and anisotropy in the inner core
R. Cohen (Carnegie Inst. of Washington) and L. Stixrude (Georgia Inst.
Tech.) presented a review and update of their first-principles calculation
of the properties of iron, both liquid and solid. They reported that the
basic theory (LAPW) is very good fo r finding the energy at high pressure,
P, but is weakened when temperature is introduced. Modification and advances
in the basic theory now allow simulation of Fe at both high pressure and
high temperature, T. They reported that the body centered cubic (b cc)
phase of iron is unstable at high P, so bcc iron is certainly not present
in the core, in contradiction to previous suggestions. They also reported
that the Helmhotz energy of the face centered cubic (fcc) phase is very
close to that of the hexagonal close packed (hcp) phase at high P, and
that both of these phases are stable at inner core conditions. They reported
that the densities of the fcc and bcc phases are very close at all pressures.
Properties of olivine and perovskite in the mantle
D. M. Taralli (Jet Propulsion Lab.) and J. J. Ita (California Inst. Tech.)
constructed a map of regional temperature variations in the upper mantle
using variations of bulk modulus inferred from profiles of seismic-velocity
anomalies. An olivine sub-syst em phase diagram that allows a self-consistent
determination of density, bulk modulus and adiabats throughout the P and
T regime of the mantle is constructed using a thermodynamic-potential formulation.
From this, a temperature anomaly is obtained from a given anomaly in seismic
parameter. The inversion is best when constrained to the upper 400 km of
the mantle.
Viscosity and rheology of the mantle
G. Pari and W. R. Peltier (Univ. Toronto) discussed deep-mantle viscosity.
A large viscosity jump at the 669 km boundary is apparently needed to explain
convection-related data, but such a jump is not indicated by data from
post-glacial rebound. They con cluded that at least one radial profile
of mantle viscosity exists that reconciles both types of data. It is characterized
by a dipolar viscosity structure near 669 km depth, with a thin layer of
low viscosity material overlying an equally thin layer of h igh viscosity
material. Thus a thin-layered structure could exist, considering that there
is an endothermic phase transition boundary at 669 km depth.
Post-glacial rebound
G. Kaufman and D. Wolf (Univ. Münster) discussed the post-glacial land
emergence in terms of a three-dimensional load model that successfully
explains the emergence of the Svalbard Archipelago with the following features:
(1) There was apparently a significant glaciation of the Barents Sea as
part of the Eurasian ice sheet. The emergence of the Svalbard Archipelago
is then an isostatic adjustment. (2) A distinct increase in asthenospheric
viscosity from about 108 Pa s to 1021 Pa s accompanied a weaker in crease
in lithospheric thickness of about 100 to 130 km underneath the Svalbard
Archipelago.
Viscosity of iron-sulfur compounds
G. E. LeBlanc and R. A. Secco (Univ. Western Ontario) presented their experimental
results on the viscosity of iron-sulfur liquids. For pressures up to 4
GPa and temperatures in the range 1250 to 1350 K, they found the dynamic
viscosity of Fe13S27 liquid to be roughly 20-40 Pa s. They found no tendency
for the viscosity to increase with pressure, at least in the range tested.
Previous estimates indicate that the liquid viscosity at inner-core-boundary
pressures should be about 6 x 10-3 Pa s.
Reporter's comments
Papers on physical properties at the Third SEDI Symposium held at Mizusawa,
July 6 - 10, 1992, consisted of two on chemical reactions between silicates
and molten iron at CMB conditions, one on the phases of iron at inner-core
conditions, three on therma l expansivity of lower-mantle candidate phases
at lower mantle conditions, one on the F-H system phase diagram at high
P and one on the power dissipation resulting from silicate phase transition
at high P. In addition, in the D''section, there was a paper by F. Stacey,
who used physical properties to relate possible temperature variations
in the lower mantle with anomalies in seismic velocity. In these five categories,
only two are common with the categories of physical properties listed above.
The papers that overlap cover work on the phase diagram of iron at core
conditions and thermal expansivity at lower-mantle conditions.
Global seismology and large scale dynamics
Global seismic tomography was well represented in Whistler. Its scope steadily
expands to more observables: upper mantle Q [J. Bhattacharyya, G. Masters
and P. Shearer (Univ. California, San Diego)], sharpness of discontinuities
[P. Earle & P. Shearer (U niv. California, San Diego)]; wider frequency
range: phase velocity of 60-120 s surface waves [G. Ekström, J. Tromp and
E. Larson (Harvard Univ.)]; more exotic regions: D''[E. Garnero & D.
Helmberger (California Inst. Tech.); M. Weber (Univ. Göttengen) et al;
A. Dziewonski (Harvard Univ.)] inner core-outer core boundary [S. Kaneshima
(Tokyo Univ.)]; and better radial reference models [B. Kennett (Australian
National Univ.), E. R. Engdahl and R. Buland (US Geological Survey, Golden)].
Summaries of Other Meetings
Deep Earth discontinuities: Configurations and dynamics
This is a report of Symposium S4 held at the IASPEI 27th General Assembly,
Wellington, New Zealand 1994 January 10-21. Clues to the properties and
behavior of the Earth are revealed by studies of discontinuities at depths
of 410 km and 660 km in the mant le, at and immediately above the core-mantle
boundary and at the transition to a solid inner core at about 1250 km radius.
All of these boundaries were subjects of discussion.
Structure and Composition of the Earth's Interior and their Relation to
Planetary Evolution
This is a report of Symposium S5 convened by Siegfried Franck (Univ. Potsdam)
and Thomas Ahrens (California Inst. Tech.) held at the IASPEI 27th General
Assembly, Wellington, New Zealand 1994 January 10-21. The purpose of this
symposium was to present ne w information on the physical properties of
minerals and rocks in relation to problems associated with the Earth's
dynamics and evolution. Of special concern were papers on the interactions
of particular planetary materials: crystalline rocks, fluids, and volatiles.
A total of 20 talks and posters were presented.
Seismic Tomography and Mantle Dynamics
This is a report of Symposium S7 held 17-18 January 1994 at the IASPEI
27th General Assembly in New-Zealand, convened by Yoshio Fukao, Henri-Claude
Nataf and Wim Spakman. A good number of people were able to attend this
one-day Symposium, and enjoy the s cenery of windy Wellington! There were
46 presentations, both oral and posters, and a lively discussion. We had
four sessions, each introduced by an invited talk. The general impression
was that several aspects of tomography and dynamics are now forming a rather
coherent picture of the mantle, in which slabs and phase transitions are
playing a key role. Both the theory of tomography and the amount of data
used are continuing their impressive ascent. Nevertheless, the proper physical
modeling of phase tran sitions, and the seismological mapping of their
topography, appear to need improvement.
A Special AGU session on High Performance Computing ( HPC) in the Geosciences
At the 1994 Spring Meeting of the American Geophysical Union in Baltimore,
a special session devoted to High Performance Computing in Geosciences
was convened by D. A. Yuen (Univ. Minnesota) and S. D. King (Purdue Univ.).
This session brought people from different backgrounds to present work
on large-scale numerical simulations in mantle convection, algorithmic
developments, scientific visualization, data-processing, and seismic wave
propagation. This session promoted discussions between diverse segments
of the community and is very timely in view of the recent HPC (High-Performance
Computing) activities sponsored by NSF, DOE and NASA.
Projects and National Activities
Report on the Second German Geodynamics Workshop in Reinhausen near Göttingen
After the first German Geodynamics Workshop was held in Thurnau near Bayreuth
in 1992 (organized by Prof. H. Schmeling) the second Workshop has just
taken place in Reinhausen near Göttingen on September 29-30 of this year.
It was organized by Prof. U. Ch ristensen together with Dr. J. Theissing
and attracted about 40 scientists and students. In contrast to the SEDI
activities in other countries the German Geodynamics Workshops focus on
dynamical processes in the upper mantle and in the crust as well as on
processes in the Earth's deep interior. Because some of the German groups
of numerical modellers are interested in both parts of solid Earth geophysics
it seemed natural to operate the workshops in this way. The next Workshop
is planned for the fall of 1 996 at a place near Muenster. Prof. W. Jacoby,
Mainz, will succeed Prof. T. Spohn, Muenster, as spokesman for the German
Geodynamics Group.
Japanese SEDI activities
SEDI-related research in Japan is currently being restructured. The program
"The Earth's Central Core," was funded initially as a three-year program
from 1990 to 1993, and had a one-year extension until March 1994, at which
time the program was terminate d. A workshop was convened at the Earthquake
Research Institute of the University of Tokyo on February 2, 1994, to summarize
the achievements of the program in a monograph and to plan for a new program.
The monograph is scheduled to be published in March, 1995.
CANSEDI: the Canadian National SEDI Committee
CANSEDI is an association of Canadian geophysicists with an interest in
the deep interior of the Earth. This group meets regularly at the annual
meeting of the Canadian Geophysical Union, where a SEDI session has been
a feature for the past five years. A t these meetings, scientists have
presented work on core dynamics, measurements of physical properties of
iron at high pressures, the dynamo, mantle convection, D''structure, the
analysis of superconducting gravimeter data, and many other topics. (Informa
tion on the CGU annual meeting may be obtained from the CGU gopher hole
at gopher.ucalgary.ca).
CSEDI: report of US National SEDI Activities
The US National SEDI activity is called CSEDI, standing for Cooperative
Studies of the Earth's Deep Interior. Most activity during the past year
has been in the form of cooperative workshops. A workshop entitled "Time
for new Earth models?", organized by A. Navrotsky (Princeton Univ.), M.
Richards (Univ. Washington), B. Romanowicz (Univ. California, Berkeley)
and D. Weidner (SUNY, Stony Brook), was held at Sandy Hill Retreat and
Conference Center, North East MD 19-21 May 1994. The organizers have produce
d a report which may be obtained from them on request.
Workshop on Geomagnetism in Studies of the Earth's interior
An Indo-US Workshop on "Geomagnetism in studies of the Earth's
interior" was held in Pune, India 22-26 August 1994. The workshop was organized
by J. Heirtzler (NASA Goddard) and M Rajaram (Indian Inst. Geomagnetism)
and hosted by the Institute. The goal of the workshop was to promote a
better understanding of geomagnetism in the study of the Earth as that
is done in the two countries and to explore where joint projects might
be undertaken. A report of the workshop is available from either organizer.
AGU Studies of the Earth's Interior Committee
The primary role of the AGU Studies of the Earth's Interior Committee has
been to facilitate interaction between different sections of the AGU and
promote awareness of scientific activities related to studies of the Earth's
interior. This has been largel y achieved by conducting special sessions
at the AGU Fall and Spring Meetings. In the past year, Union sessions on
the SEI theme have been held at both meetings. In the Fall 1993 Meeting,
31 invited and contributed papers were presented at a day-long sess ion
entitled "Studies of the Earth's Deep Interior: Upwellings and Downwellings".
At the Spring, 1994 Meeting, an union session entitled "The Effects of
Deep Mantle Processes on Surface Observables" drew 26 papers. The upcoming
Fall 1994 Meeting there wil l contain at least two union and multi-section
sessions under the SEDI theme. The name of the AGU committee has recently
been changed to the Studies of the Earth's Deep Interior Committee, a name
more in keeping with its role.
Business Activities
Minutes of the SEDI business meeting, Tuesday, August 9, 1994, Whistler
BC.
The SEDI Business meeting was convened by the Chairman, Jean-Louis Le Mouël
, at 5:30 PM. The meeting was attended by 41 scientists from Australia,
Canada, China, Czech Republic, France, Germany, Japan, the Netherlands,
Russia, UK and USA. The first it em of business was consideration of an
extension of the SEDI charter; in 1987 SEDI was approved as an IUGG Union
Committee for the eight-year period 1987-1995. A motion to authorize the
Chairman of SEDI to seek an extension of this charter at the next IUG G
General Assembly to be held in Boulder next July was passed unanimously.
The next item of business was announcements of upcoming meetings. For details
of this see the subsequent articles. Following this were brief reports
of SEDI national activities by Richard O'Connell (USA), Phillipe Machtel
(France), Masaru Kono (Japan), Andrew Soward and H. Keith Moffatt (UK),
James Merriam and David Crossley (Canada) and Ulrich Christensen (Germany).
For details of some of these activities, see the previous artic les on
projects and national activities. Jeffrey Love brought up the matter of
SEDI ratification of the effort by the geomagnetic community to obtain
good quality reversal records from existing cores obtained by the Ocean
drilling Project. However, no fo rmal resolution was presented, so no action
was taken.
European Secretary
At a meeting of the SEDI Executive Committee on 11 August 1994, Henri Claude
Nataf was approved as the European Secretary of SEDI. He is charged with
coordinating SEDI-related activities within Europe and assembling information
of such activities for inc lusion in the annual DEEP EARTH DIALOG. European
scientists are encouraged to communicate directly with Henri-Claude concerning
such activities. His address is Department Terre-Atmosphere-Ocean, École
Normale Supérieure, 24 Rue L'Homond, 75231 Paris Cedex 05; his fax
number is 33-1-4332-2200; his email address is nataf@geophy.ens.fr.
Nominating Committee
SEDI is headed by a set of three officers: Chairman, Vice-Chairman and
Secretary, who are advised by an executive committee. The officers and
committee members serve four-year terms in phase with the IUGG General
Assemblies. A new set of officers and com mittee members for the period
1995-1999 will be chosen at an open business meeting of SEDI during the
next General Assembly to be held in Boulder, July 1995. To assist in this
process, a nominating committee has been formed to prepare a slate of candidate
s for consideration at that time. At a meeting of the executive committee
on 11 August 1994, the following nominating committee was chosen: Orson
Anderson, Brian Kennett, Masaru Kono, Jean-Louis Le Mouël (Chairman),
Richard O'Connell. Brian Kennett cann ot serve due to the pressure of other
commitments; the Chairman may choose an alternate. Anyone wishing to provide
input to the nomination process is urged to contact one of these committee
members.
Doornbos Memorial Prizes
The memorial fund established after the tragic death of the Chairman of
SEDI, Durk Doornbos, now stands at $22,000 and the interest on the fund
has been sufficient to fund three prizes during the first year of operation.
The prizes have been awarded to y ounger scientists for outstanding work
on problems relating to the structure of the Earth's interior. The first
prize was awarded at the IASPEI General Assembly in Wellington, New Zealand
in January 1994 to Dr. J. Tromp of Harvard University for an elegan t demonstration
that anisotropy in the inner core of the Earth explains both the anomalous
splitting of free oscillations and travel-time observations.
Email network
A SEDI email network has been established. The purpose of this is to allow
rapid communication among members of the SEDI community of messages of
general interest, such as announcements of meetings. Messages sent to the
address SEDI-Mail@gfdi.fsu.edu wil l be automatically sent to all persons
who have subscribed to the network. To subscribe, send a message to SEDI-Mail-Request@gfdi.fsu.edu.
The content of the message should be the following two lines:
Status of members of SEDI
In order to keep the SEDI mailing list current, please complete the enclosed
inquiry sheet and return it to the indicated address as soon as possible.
Anyone providing an email address will be automatically added to the email
subscription list. Persons w ho do not respond to this inquiry will be
assumed to have no further interest in SEDI and will be dropped from the
mailing list.
Future Meetings of Interest
Fall AGU Meeting
The 1994 Fall meeting of the American Geophysical Union is held in San Francisco 5-9 December 1994. Sessions of particular interest to SEDI include U07 "Earth structure from crust to core", convened by A. Dziewonski (Harvard Univ.) and R. Phinney (Prince ton Univ.), U09 "From the Earth's deep interior to Jupiter's red spot: the continuing legacy of Ray Hide" convened by J. Dickey (Jet Propulsion Lab.) and T13 "Multidisciplinary investigations of the core-mantle boundary", convened by L. Kellogg (Univ. Cal ifornia, Davis) and E. Garnero (California Inst. Tech.)European meetings
The next meeting of the European Geophysical Society, to be held in Hamburg 3-7 April 1995 will include Symposium SE6, "Global seismology and large scale dynamics", convened by R. Kind (Potsdam), A.W. B. Jacob (Dublin) and M. Weber (Göttingen).Shortly thereafter the European Union of Geosciences will meet in Strasburg 9-13 April 1995. This meeting will include Symposium VIII "Composition, structure and dynamics of the deep Earth", co-sponsored by SEDI and EGS and consisting of part 1 "Structur e and composition of the deep Earth convened by W. Spakman (Univ. Utrecht) and F. Guyot (Institut de Physique du Globe, Paris) and Part 2 "Modelling in deep Earth geodynamics" convened by U. Hansen (Univ. Utrecht), P. Cardin (École Normale Supérieure) and R. Sabadini (Univ. Bologna). A business meeting for those interested in SEDI will take place at this occasion. Further information will be sent to SEDI members on the email network. (See article on page 19.)
A conference entitled Plume 2 will be convened by D. L. Anderson
(California Inst. Tech.), S. R. Hart (Woods Hole Oceanographic Inst.) and
A. W. Hofmann (Max Planck Inst. für Chemie, Mainz) at Schloss Ringberg,
Bavaria, 16-21 July 1995. This is a sequel to a conference on the same
topic held at California Institute of Technology in 1991. For more information,
contact Dr. Kerstin Lehnert, Max Planck Inst. für Chemie, Postfach 3060,
D-55020 Mainz, Germany; email kerstin@geobar.mpch-mainz.mpg.de; phone 49-6
131-305260; fax 49-6131-371051.
IUGG General Assembly
There will be a number of sessions of interest to SEDI at the IUGG general assembly to be held in Boulder Colorado 3-14 July, 1995. Of the five Union lectures, two will be of direct interest: UL2 Sea level, ice sheets and the physics of the Earth (Lectur er: Kurt Lambeck) and UL3 Chaotic dynamics and complexity in 3 geophysical fluids (Lecturer: R. Peltier). One of the eight Union symposia will be devoted to the deep Earth: US4 The hidden Earth revealed from space (Convenors: J. Dickey, K. Lambeck, P. Mo ungnis-Mark, J. Schulz and S. Zerbini). In addition six joint (inter-Association) symposia are co-sponsored by SEDI: AS1 Structure, evolution and dynamics of the core-mantle boundary region (Convenors: R. Jeanloz, B. Buffett and K. Whaler), AS2 Geomagnet ic secular variation and core flow near the core-mantle boundary (Convenors: G. Hulot, J. Bloxham, D. Crossley and P. McFadden), AS3 Geochemical and geophysical signatures of mantle plumes (Convenors: W. M. White, L. Fleitout, B. Hager, A. Hofmann and L . Kellogg), AS4 Mantle dynamics and the geological record (Convenors: M. Richards, S. Cloetingh, G. Davies and M. Gurnis), AS8 Earth rotation: an interdisciplinary approach to earth system science (Convenors: M. Feissel, D. Cartwright, R. Sabadini and P . Brosche), AS14 Modelling the Earth's interior (Convenors: R. O'Connell, G. Masters, M. Brown and V. Dehant). Finally, two IASPEI workshops are co-sponsored by SEDI: W14 Deja Q: Anelasticity in the Earth's deep interior (Convenors: M. Ritzwoller and B. Romanowicz) and W15 Thermoelastic properties of deep mantle plumes (Convenors: O. L. Anderson and I. Jackson). In addition to these Union and inter-Association symposia, there
will be a number of sessions of interest in the programs of the individual
Associations, including IAG, IAGA, IASPEI and IAVCEI.
Electromagnetic Workshop
Prior to the SEDI 96 symposium (see next story), an electormagnetic workshop will be held in Hokkaido Japan, 12-18, 1996. for more information contact Y. Honkura, Department of Applied Physics, Tokyo Institute of Technology; email yhonkura@geo.titech.ac. jp; fax 81-3-3729-0162.SEDI 96 Symposium
The SEDI 96 Symposium will be held in Brisbane, Australia, 23-27 July 1996. It will be a joint meeting with AGU, identified by AGU as the fourth in its series of Western Pacific Geophysics Meetings (WPGM) and by SEDI as its fifth International Symposium.The Meeting Environment
The venue is the Brisbane Convection and Exhibition Centre, scheduled for completion in April 1995. It is an impressive structure and promises state-of-the-art conference facilities. The centre is adjacent to a new recreation area, South Bank Parklands ( the site of the 1988 World Expo), providing an attractive setting. The Parklands occupy approximately a kilometer of the south bank of the Brisbane River, immediately opposite the central business district, which has most of the hotels as well as shops an d government buildings. The Convention Centre is the newest part of a development that makes the South Bank area a focus for cultural activities, incorporating the Queensland Art Gallery, Museum, Concert Hall, theaters and the State Library.Brisbane is a city with a little over a million people on the east coast of Australia at latitude 27.5S. The sub-tropical latitude and coastal situation give a well moderated climate. Average July daily high and low temperatures are 21C and 12C, so that a jacket or pullover is needed morning and evening but the usual mid-day weather is sunny and warm. Average July rainfall is 65 mm, which makes it one of the drier months. The climate is ideal for eating al fresco at the many restaurants scattered through the South Bank Parklands and these offer plenty of scope for relaxed lunch breaks.
Organization
One feature of the internationalization of AGU is its formation of Regional Advisory Committees (RACs). It was AGU's RAC for Australia and New Zealand that invited AGU to hold its 1996 WPGM in Brisbane. Three of its members were appointed as a local orga nizing committee (M. McElhinny, N. S. W., Chair, F. Stacey, Brisbane; R. Walcott, Wellington). The invitation was finally accepted in January 1994, by which time we had had 12 months of thinking and planning. One idea was to emphasize special interest top ics that would provide scientific high points and this was the motive for inviting SEDI to make it a joint meeting. The SEDI Symposium will be a special focus for the meeting.
Recognizing the need for the SEDI program to be effectively independent, a SEDI Symposium program committee has been formed (K. Lambeck, Canberra, Chair; G. Houseman, Melbourne; D. Ivers, Sydney; I. Jackson, Canberra; B. Kennett, Canberra; P. McFadden, C anberra). This committee will arrange the week long symposium coordinating its plan with the AGU program committee that will be responsible for the other sessions of the WPGM (B. Fraser, Newcastle, Chair; C. Barton, Canberra, solid earth geophysics member ). F. Stacey has assumed chairmanship of a local organizing committee for matters specifically concerning SEDI, but will, of course, not be acting independently of the WPGM local organizing committee, chaired by M. McElhinny.
The meeting will run for 5 days, Tuesday to Saturday, and SEDI sessions will include all of the established SEDI interests. The present intention is that SEDI should be one of several parallel sessions, AGU-style, but the scope of the conference centre a llows the program committee the option of parallel SEDI sessions or a separate room for nuts-and-bolts workshops on more specialized topics, if this appears appropriate. There is a large area for poster papers, adjacent to refreshments, and SEDI will have its own clearly identified poster area. In anticipation of strong interest in the SEDI sessions, one of the larger rooms in the conference centre will be assigned to them.
Administration of the meeting will be handled by AGU in its normal way. Calls for papers, registration, and housing request forms will appear in EOS and abstracts will be printed in a special WPGM Supplement to EOS. Intending SEDI participants who are me mber s of AGU are asked to use the EOS forms for these purposes, identifying their section interest as SEDI. Participants who are not AGU members should contact Frank Stacey for this information (Physics Department, The University of Queensland, Brisbane 4072, Australia; FAX +61-7-365-1242). Further information will be circulated to the SEDI mailing list when the program committee has details to report.
Social Activities
The conference centre has a banquet hall and catering facilities and this is probably the best option for a conference dinner. Several lunch-time entertainments are under consideration (aboriginal dancers, didgeridoo player and, space permitting, a boome rang-throwing demonstration.Joy Stacey has prepared an extensive list of activities in and around Brisbane for accompanying persons (and participants skipping a session or two!). Some, such as the Art Gallery, Museum and the City Heritage Trail of architectural features are very cl ose. There are boat trips up river to a koala sanctuary and down river to islands in Moreton Bay (Brisbane coastline is protected from open ocean by large sand islands, with many smaller ones in the 30 km wide bay). There is an excellent stand of the loca l coastal rain forest at Maiala National Park on Mount Glorious, west of Brisbane, requiring a half day trip, and full day coast trips visit the open ocean beach resorts south (Gold Coast) and north (Sunshine Coast). Depending on demand, group tours can b e arranged.
Pre- and Post-conference Touring
Most of the Queensland coastline is "protected" by the Great Barrier Reef which extends 2000 km from Papua-New Guinea to the northern end of Fraser Island, 400 km north of Brisbane. Many of the reef tour boats operate out of Cairns, 1400 km north of Bris bane, which has an international airport used by QANTAS and several overseas carriers. Carriers not stopping at Cairns have arrangements with domestic airlines to add a side trip to Cairns without extra fare. Recognizing that conference participants may w ish to take advantage of this situation but that most travel agents can only go by the literature themselves receive, the local organizing committee has made a careful study of the possibilities, to give informed advice.
Mike and Jo McElhinny made an extended tour of reef trips to select those they regard as both good and good value. Their recommendations are detailed in an article that Mike has written for EOS. Non-members of AGU who may be interested should write to Fr ank Stacey (Dept. Physics, Univ. Queensland, Brisbane 4067, Queensland, Australia) for a copy.
A Video Tape Preview
To give a glimpse of Brisbane, especially the South Bank area, and some of the tour possibilities, a video-tape has been prepared for showing at AGU meetings, on the AGU stand at EGS meetings and at the 1995 IUGG Assembly in Colorado.Contributed by Frank Stacey, Univ. Queensland.